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d ‘ 
ELEMENTS AND THBORY 
ARCHITECTURE 


oF GUADET 


Inspector General of Civil Buildings 
3 / 
Professor and Member of 


2 ; ee : i 
Saperior gouncii . 95 


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Boole des Beaux Arts 
| 


Volume a 


PARIS. 


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‘franslated by N. Clifford Ricker. D. arch. = 


: a |= 
‘Emeritus Professor of Architecture 


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ss UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 


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Preface to the third Hdition.; 


Note on the. Life. and. Works of Julien Gaudete: | 
(December 23,:1684—--May 17,: 1908),: 
By ee 
J.. Le: Pascal.; 
Member of the Institute,: Inspector General of Civil Buildings 


In one of those paradoxical caprices of thoughtful boldness 
in which his genius indulged,: our master Garnier said that for. 
the architect,: the classical is everything that constructs.: 

In giving to that formula emphasis by the most cautious 
selection,: Julien Gaudet,: the author of this beautiful end 
good book,: for any reason would not, have to present it for a 
new edition,: but, death arrested the masterly and ealm product- 
ion of that balanced mind,: very particularly delighting in 
educational labors,: soon after he had completed the prepara- 
tion of this third issue,: nearly similar to the second. 

He is no more! For several generations that remember the 
brilliant pupil of the School of Fine Arts,: the strong pensioner. 
of the French Academy at. Rome,: the inspector of works at the 
Opera House and the Museum of Natural History, the archi«= 
tect. of the Post Office at Paris,: and of the reconstruction 
of the French Theatre; for the government officials or men 
of affairs, that have met in business the inspector general of 
-eivil buildings,: the well appreciated expert,’ the masterly 
author,: accurate and literary,: of so many official: reports 
‘almost educative on the most diverse matters; for enthusiasts 
‘in higher studies,: who have appreciated the instruction by a 
chief of an atelier, that had become a professor for all. stue | 
dents in Rue Bonaparte,: who introduced to their minds architect- 
ural theories for the numerous artists in the entire world, | 
that, unconsciously were impressed,: it would only be necess= 
ary to make known what was represented by that, serene kind- | 
“ness and uniform temper,: the noble figure at the beginning | 
of this’ volume,‘ and also his continual graces in the service | 

of not, only the youths,: that, were directly under him, but to 
all those believing it right’ to have him intervene’ in their 
affairs.: | 

‘For the future alone is it necessary to note how thw sys- 
tematic plan of the work of my dear friend is in harmony with 
the charming existence of the artist,‘ in which rank posterity 


| & 
“Baideegs at avotitdas oof Jon od brow odd Yt aid eoelg flim 
‘etosdiders we to 
ebing & ebatd divoy beone treqxant add gegsg terit oft al 
od efds zstigant as ,199%80 aid to sotedo od gaibtoeh sof 
sort wid gaisoorith aeatvbs as 28 [low ae ,westendiae atid hte 
_ eonemmoo of ton wid 10% tnshaurg ed gt Yi .2notaglit yoem ood 
pettodsl daou odd gatbecetg acthute to asitea add at mobas1 ts 
' Gtdeesltinetqcs sisvee aid gntrsb bas si0cteS .atestse to eso 
end bentadiecse oved [{tw.,aaqoo aid nedes anived Liquq edt 
alitfsnetoa eid | bertiapos ed oJ eghedwond oft to ystotiqttlom 
 ybedslomuoos ed Jaum dedd 2ateasetont ylisuntdaoo anoters22og 
edt ,adiotte eid lo edluzer yqaed edd mtd autwode alide fod | 
tobeel edd .amastaudins tge1g amooed oft bentteeb ayot ilema 
j hatataw yd bao [eatt edt o¢ bister at mid barseeset oved {lin 
»=we dadi ,fiot aii tot eaoittua yeb dose sedt:,elinatenoo aid 
; iitw ea ¢laouloanooas dedg bas» batasvomrsa ai vttvualttib ym 
~aoqa ),eaoiduloe favaitges asouborg doidw ytatedaso isdt doses 
anis eij e%% dads ydsilidixel? Oboe ¥Ydivaekat ,ebalt to ysiensd 
" A: at beniaénoo eetioeds edd to vietitiae [utid¢used edt.to 
i stadesm odd to seaxudoel edd lo yismave 
en aiavele bas doutdedt ,s10tai aes dsdw nese aaived wodth 
eee bedaini? aged asi modw ot ,ateat ot ei od tedd datéae oft 
au 94,9724 {Liw ed teds ednengatant odd to soltgitoeeh edt no 
¥¢ olga oft sono te bat? Iliw elfgioatb bemtotni eid? 
ad Tle. bats eid to anotderego {ie sheoorqg taum teft sone 
| eonsvininos eid to tnedtsodne edd. / #oltseto at atiotte 
my: ef te9dsd ,ehiedo aid at etsotedat odd to gniioe tara 


Lcesevey nae ~aleaubivibat biewod mid fogs dénedmvont detest odd 
. Ae reitd degad tedd aetiiaumion 10 eotito tne 
Yio ed [fs betespnoo asi dadd ed Hove : wistotiosrq ent 
) ft0a : 8 at besttemmua etodt batt [Liv toexas etd to estd 
= awal odd neito Jon w= g0licb edd to aotéstesuue of% shoo 
oo tebag toubaoo asolaquica aid dindsa Jana.ed doidw od. 
= gobs need asd dtow eft to disg 8 Jedd boog of ~~ ,eatigtoath 
4 mae edt to slut ett es 6 donet®? to seshlo edd yd be 
| etodmem att to toub 
"a9 daatnob yleugev etedweale yititdtenogas1 to gntieet atd? 
wie Uiss loots etom ,aoktieoqmos to vatw989 eitins edd ai 
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3 
will place hinm,: if the word be not too ambitious in speaking 
of an architect,: 

In the first pages the inexperienced youth finds a guide 
for deciding the choice of his career,: an inspirer able to 
aid his enthusiasm, as well as an adviser directing him from 
too many illusions, if it, be prudent for him not to commence 
at random in the series of studies preceding the most labori- 
ous of careers,.; Before and during his severe apprenticeship, : 
the pupil having taken his course,: will have ascertained the 
multiplicity of the knowbedge to be acquired,: the scientific 
possessions continually increasing,: that must be accumulated; 
but while showing him the happy results of his efforts,: the 
small joys destined to become great enthusiasms,: the leader 
will have reassured him in regard to the final end by warning 
him constantly, that each day suffices for its toil, that. ev= 
ery difficulty is surmounted,: and that unconsciuosly he will 
reach that certainty which produces continual solutions,: spon= 
taneity of finds,: ingenuity and flexibility,: thet. are the aims 
of the beautiful entirety of the theories contained in the 
summary of the lectures of the master.; 

After having seen what can inform,: instruct and elevate hin, : 
the artist that he is to train,: to whom has been furnished eve 
en the description of the instruments that he will have to use,: 
this informed disciple will find at once the rule of consci-= 
ence, that must precede all operations of his mind, all his 
efforts in creation,: the embodiment of his contrivances,: the 
protection of the interests in his charge. Later he will find 
the indications of the sad temptations which he must avoid,: 
the duties incumbent, upon him toward individuels, the govern 
ment, cities or communities that trust hin.: 

The practician,: even he that has conquered all the difficul- 
ties of his career will find there summarized in a sort of 
code the enumeration of the duties;«- not often the laws « 
to which he must submit his serupalous. conduct under severe 
discipline;== so good that a part of the work has been adopt 
ed by the oldest of French Societies as the rule of the cone 
duct of its members,: 

This feeling of responsibility elsewhere: vasuely dominates 
‘in the entire course of composition,: more particularly forne 
‘ulated in the last pages,: and summarized in the final word; = 
‘honor,: 


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qitoaeb betsy odd \,snctssbavoi at aoxsbesotg edd to aelg 
sian edd bas .,sissourds odd at beyolqme aletiedsm odd to 
Bag stoot. ,aitoolt > .alisw s1eis «tadnemels to dail elds 
do stlusy | .asete dee1% oals es anege [isma anizelone 10% 


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diel need eed dotdw Yo oonebtve .aneem Yo aiayisas jnol 


3900 neve ,soidatuh to astassaoo Yo noitonse edt Suodiie 
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lata ot Yue ood fon wm 2a0kdardenllt jastoitige exe etedT 

to doiselomuoos as gateitgmoo ~«,txat s dott oa gatgremdua 
‘i tise > Lotdttet | <2eots0s teed oft mort aedat ile ,aalquaxs 
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@ ead de eatudoel to eesn0on edd rot chem sedslq te1g wor? 
<adissotldug dgetg mot? yltoarib bewariod 10 .244A oait to 
eibude Lutddaoy odd ddiw gatoasmmoo :.adtow L[ntitased bas 
joton eta yd bedataast aelqmexe odd of guibaedxe ,yedeem edd 
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4 
Between the preparation in the beginning and the final sug 
gestions of such high character,: for the practice of a noble 


profession, there extends in e very intelligible order the 
enumeration of the elements composing the construction, the 
explanation in practical pages accompanied by historical exane 
ples of the procedures in foundations,: the varied description 

of the materials employed in the structure, and the intermine- 
able list of elements: = piers,: walls,: floors,: roofs and covering: 
for enclosing small spans as also great areas, vaults,: chane 
bers, stairs,: etc.,: our entire vocabularye : 

Reading the table of contents will admirably summarize this 
long analysis of means,: evidence of which has been left to us 
by the history of our. art,: adding thereto suggestions of those 
without the sanction of centuries of duration, even comcerning 
the most risky procedures, that. long experience alone per= 
mits statement. in their turn,: as done for those preceding.’ 

There are sufficient, illustrations,«- not too many to risk 
submerging so rich a text,e- comprising an accumulation of 
examples,: all taken from the best. sources,: faithful,: serious 
and eccurate,: in which one can confide,: frequently reduced ~ 
from great. plates made for the course of lectures at the School 
of Fine Arts,: or borrowed directly from great publications, : 
and beautiful works,: commencing with the youthful studies of 
the master,: extending to the examples furnished by his sojourn 
at Rome and his travels as pensioner énto Greece ahd the Orient, 

Then are the considerations that permit combining these ele~ 
ments to be combined to form a complete organism with the de- 
tails that the anatomy has shown, after the synthesis being 
the analysis,: the breedths of the solids,: the proportions of 
the voids,: the nomenclature of courts,: porticos,: entrances, : 
stairs, ete.,: of all terms peculiar to us,:or those used by 
all, the whole ending in the composition of plans embodying 
the given programmes,: to the study of elevations and sections 
of edifices, superposing character on the solutions obtained,: 
and finally art,: exclusively pursued by means of so much ; 
knowledge.; 

The fine successe= exceptional in publications-- of this 
architectural encyclopedia has been a just subject of pride,: 
a triymph for its author,: cruelly treated by disease., Indeed, : 
one can say that it. summarizes the actual state of our scien= 
ces,. of tradition and recent invention, of history and experi- 
ence in progress, of theory and reality,: and that for a long 


i era. Se ee ee ee ct aps 


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@ aidd to uatxtt ed? .d4e avo nt anotdulove edd otsotibat of 
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2 dsodilidd s to asnomedada odd .euivardiV « to eyevana ond 
folS s to woiésmtotat edd s,sgeo16e) s0 2 Yo aetbuda sdét.,smtol 
Suenyes oonosd to ,dovold to. ,telobaot Yo eagtsiasen ods fob 
“wiloo noed eefqmsxs to tedanun @ dove asd t9ven sagsoed |,.9%0 
Sain bitoul bas mitt edd to Lloxtnos eteves edt t9bny bosos 
etd to aclinetni bexti edd ditw.,beosastieqrs oa astotsoarg 8 
“ee asoldslos agit at gntb{ted Yo sis odd detdaa as 24 gaite 


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ees: Gidabastat ym ,eats aids to exvow [saotisoube deed oft to 
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61% to évidadaseerges eidd lo Yiileddarveq dgid odd Yo Sed 
‘oot 149 biluow Sf Jedd bas ,gntonenmoo at hice ovad I a8: .d148 
q6%4 eeobt aff yttso [fiw dtow oft aodw» wottiretertg yd dow 
sud .a0 wollot [Liv isdd enoiterens3 edt of mods Stasaaxd to 
anaved ottl atid to déhaol sedsorty ds etsd dasge of toa 
panne “sid of ot]edwaatle betoved ased eved agfolits yias 

B: ~~) © jeonedetse avotiods! aid eatismmys meds ew ted 

ratrsS ga SESE gS stodmeceG atod: esw Jebued aeatlot 

. '%o todmem eno ,yfiwel gaibaortil s Yo susbasosob aiit 
LA cotta eman ef¢ oben ybaetis Ssd .oloam teeth sid 

_ Saino Ytsgnuoo wo to eTil L[eoistifog eid ni enos4t #@ gaivesl 
be tats w aid yd tieemtd beti{fs bsd bas \notivfoved donetd edd 
oxen vidstooqes1 o@ awond .,aireal to ylinat? aatt a diiw 
end yd tedal bas’ 2582 to acttulovet odd at dood si todd 
ga saodw,joaied Yo lime? dse1g edd odnt reddgueb aid Yo 
F ST Saaautovok nsoi{dwugqer ods déiw betstooses Yldan oa at 

Negedaage edd at bisket od aefonebneds [snoaieg odiup vq bed 
gi exom as etudosdidexe to fonerd [etoege odd atus edt Yo 
g biTtdne tos edd hatwoud Yo eldsgsoe »eetdivost aid ddiw ynos 
%o dniog ond od) setoltufove oltelite edd délw ylisupe 
¢ noivourdant edd af ehind bos setesm ea Rnwoy o¢iup eLidn 
de Isotaeelo otoves tosis owis owse add ts .sobeimoo etd 
to Loodo’ odd oF actaainbs 10% tloemid betsqetg od suds 
_ Litqua & 38 ofedd teotso daontt- edt begesq ods ,atid 
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6. 


time one will not, even refer to any other plan or statement. 

to indicate the evolution in our art.; The fixing of this stage 
will represent,: if one desires to seek an equivalwnt,: more than 
the surveys of a Vitruvius,: the statements of a Philibert. De- 
lorne,. the studies of a Du Cerceau,: the information of a Blon- 
del, the notations of Réndelet,: of Blouet,: of Leonce Raynaud,: 
etc.,: because never has such a number of examples been colle 
ected under the severe control of the firm and lucid mind of 
a practician so experienced, with the fixed intention of tree 
ating as an artist the art. of building in its relations to 

our civilization.; 

Perhaps one will find that in this rapid analysis of one 
of the best. educational works of this time,: my friendship 
for its author may have counted too much on the knowledge we 
had of the high persdénality of this representative of French 
art,: as I. have said in commencing, and that it would err too 
much by preterition,: when the work will earry its ideas afar,: 
or transmit them to the generations that will follow us,: than 
not. to speak here at greater length of his life,: because obit= 
uary articles have been devoted elsewhere to hin,‘ 

Let. us. then summarize his laborious existence; 

Julien Gaudet. was born December 23,: 1834 at Paris.) 

This descendant. of a Girondist. family,: one member of which,: 
his great uncle, had already made the name illustrious by 
leaving a trace in the political life of our country during 
the French revolution,: and had allied himself by his marriage 
with a fine family of Marie,: known so respectably since the part 
that, it took in the revolution of 1848,: and later by the marriag 
of his daughter into the great. family of Carnot, whose name 
is so nobly associated with the republican government,: 

Led by quite personal tendencies to regard in the career. 
of the arts the special branch of architecture as more in hare 
mony with his faculties,. capable of knowing the scientifie part. 
equally with the artistic evolution-- to the point, of serving 
while quite young as master and guide in the instruction of 
his comrades, at. the same time after severe classical studies, 
that. he prepared himself for admission to the School of %ine 
Arts,: he passed the finest, career there as a pupil,: until he 
obtained in 1864 the prize of Rome,: that consecration of a ~ : 


single man each year,: with the best efforts added to natural 
gifts.. 


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Yeide «wo Yo acidoerth edi tebag :,2iiad to savok si9q0 add to 
e978 fen Of ,otboA tedeaa aid tebau bas aisder aid a0 .teintad 
doidw :.ytodaii Isivisk Yo sneauM add to edtow ed oF bodoas 
1g d8014 od3 to aoidouadenos adt too1ib of wlac titel ad 
' to aniot edd eroted »,eaotti0 sac edd s02 eermtontde yian ) 
mteq sii to acisourseanco edd beduosxe od efidw.,sataelin® 
4 dnebive oa ai edte odd Yo seenlisaa odd etedw.eoitibs 
ia 161 fawts oa ato1ts edé¢ to saves teido sid mid 10% aew bae 
,ateflese odd Yo suo to noidoetid edd bemuezs of 8V8t al 
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id ai arsoy yinews 10% .eteuordsd ».1edaem Jjnenine as to asta 
a 8 8 hontett od > e210 to boddem [sahivibat tedd yd aad 
equcoet eidon 4 asw wid of snendogdsa o2odu > aliquq to ots 
eae ot fuldiiet anismet jedd base: ,twod daai aid [its 
38 etoig io sucisonst edé x02 aotdisog jedd..dtel od ned¥ :.yt0 
Late ald 103 besstootgaqs of . wolsourdeni aid :,ytoeds to +0 
- of edd. .vsdotstav eldibaroat odd tot eiom (Iida base aeustoel 
) to sommetgo1g edd to sotiersgetg Intetso eft ,eomeupea xo! 
) Mottdosieisse elLined odd mid evid ton blyoo 2aofsitequoc 
| tnd wtedouqdsJani es r9esis9o ezid to tasg tert? edd at bevtes 
. od bas tloanid etagetg o¢ mid bel eeeneuoisasioanoo dgisd 
r ett» dolteLiguoo evomtons efi of déatd ove doidw.,éi ated 
sedaideleo ew adtzes saodw,atow [ulidueod gid? otnt beatct 
Bir, .eintoeadideatA Yo yioedT bas ataomel[i att 
odd . peotvaee eid Listeh ot y1sexe0en od hluow digael tsar 
ae penta tind [ivto to todeegent bas toetiders es berehaed of 
hiont betosqxeny Jzom ed? :.awoad 1t9e%s0 aid eisa od tebt0 
2 od ytiausioggo sid eves :,erttseds doner¥ odd to gninwd odd 
io dgid atd miodoursenoe es Snoiad etd ,2aenlooo aid tididxe 
et odd bas detddut edd Yo Isvomet odd ni (itdea fenotese? 
pid tlezwtd bewode oH ;.entua gnidome seodd Yo aoldouisanooes 
an Ceganne Usilenoaeteq sid sevetsdw.tebt0 setit odd Yo as 


4 


ew on sah esn od aeonsdemsortio eldarosem todas 
a mS A EE Ce EY a een eee ee 


dosdtidesA to ydetoo® L[eitned odd Yo yonsbtee tq odd Lid 


6 


His sojourn at. Villa Medicis was particularly fruitful,: and 
several of his drawings have been added as examples to the 
instructive work,: whose third edition we present,: and place 
it. without a peere, 

Before his departure and for several years,: he had taken 
part, in the preparations and the beginning of the execution 
of the Opera House of Paris,: under the direction of our chief 
Garnier.; On his return and under his master. Andre,: he was ate 
tached to the works of the Museum of Natural History,: which 
he left only to direct the construction of the great prelimi- 
nary structures for the: Post Office,: before the ruins of the. 
Tuileries,: while he executed the construction of the permanent 
edifice, where the smallness: of the site is so evident. today, 
and was for him the chief cause of the errors so. cruel for hin.; 

In 1871 he assumed the direction of one of the ateliers,: that 
had been created some years earlier at the School of Fine Arts,: 
Before becoming the pupil of Andre he had attended the lece 
tures of an eminent, master,: Labrouste., For twenty years in his 
turn,: by that individual method of ours,: he trained a genera- 
tion of pupils,: whose. attachment, to him was a noble recompense 
till his last hour,: and that. remains faithful to his meme 
orye) When he left that position for the functions of profess- 
or of theory,: his instruction,: so appreciated for his oral 
lectures and still more for the incredible variety,: the los- 
ical sequence,: the careful preparation of the programmes of 
competitions,: could not. give him the gentle satisfaction ree 
ceived in the first part of his career as instructor; but, his 
high conscientiousness led him to prepare himself and to maine 
tain it, which gave birth to the enormous. compilation,: trans- 
formed into this beautiful work,: whose merits. we celebrate:= 
the Elements and Theory of Architecture,; 

Great length would be necessary to detail the services,: that 
he rendered as architect and. inspector of civil buildings in : 
order to make his career known.) The most. unexpected incident, : | 
the burning of the French theatre,: gave him opportunity to | 
exhibit his coolness,: his talent as. constructorm his high pro- | 
fessional skill in the removal of the rubbish and the rapid 
reconstruction of those smoking ruins.; He showed himself there 
as of the first order,: wherever his personality appeared,: un= 
til the presidency of the Central Society of Architects,. where 
under memorable circumstances he was almost heroic,: braving 


suffering and menacing death, in order to accomplish what he 


bad! ao Si 0 iT tr re aa Bs ly 


‘ey i z 
' Paes 
‘ é 


, eee | te agenb 8 #8 bebteger 
‘Voeesid aude od. ietedie buticetiatae base betstootqgqes «A 
Yeemid ehea od ¢sdd o8 - ~eomeburgelw~, at beetev oa le 
#4 Yo Loose? eft to sotdoniéenl Yo [tomwod rotaequ? edd te 
 fetened edt ta ystreddiue aid Wiéterteviad efd de bas adtaA 
“eddotil ebtow aid to diuad odd, wantofiwd Eivid Yo LtongoDd 

oy edgid odt ested mtd ever ovis agnisiaw xsid lo eelitlanp 
pie bi tod deal edt Litau soalg 
& eeseaib 2gneide &-to eonsuditnoo eft yiseasoea saw ored? 
dds divod edd ait deee of notatoed baa edt daomfe bas 
$ eeecaih odd nonw.mid o¢ Ie¢et saw sed’ ..4ts to esasdo 
w to t9¥0g bag bain edd eredw. aoltatidanoo tnedeiaes « 
Mera. | fetgod [aatt edd (Lis bedetniatiban aew 
Peldon s dove gninseon0g adnometsde cesdt gielqmoo of 
S230 seidilewo edd jedi vee o¢ YIaeaaoenny ei byt / 818 
oxe eit to agiisvole edt te etew ,ylisat to asa e) 180 
dd bae»,sebt ieiad ¢ dud wovis evsd ew doidw to .adtin fe 
tdoddiw eacabuid etsonie ati ,aciviea 19hae1 of ybser aven 
Be: / Gem@td-od eatsooe: hed 1t9ve0dw of seqo sew aesnedind 
se1g odd dads o2>.Ystiaseand to nemtoege satt s een off 
 tebas -eohte. pei eid io eno ewode ,avoluquxoa bas Lu teiss 
RM subir 04 a. welgmsxe as as novig sated. atizves sd doidw 


% 


io teoses ad ak : ef OCr SS Lita 
S ‘ ee 
Mw © 2 4 
ee 
: h Th) 
2¢ } 
y fy 
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mets ae Poa ll whe ato ets i 


regarded as a dutye! 

An appreciated and experienced expert,: he showed himself 
also versed in jurisprudence,: so that he made himself heard 
at the Superior Council of Instruction of the School of Fine 
Arts and at the University; his authority at, the General 
Council of Civil Buildings,: the truth of his words like the 
qualities of his writings also gave him there the highest, 
place until the last hour. 

There was necessary the continuance of a strange disease a 
and almost. the sad decision to seek in the South at Lugano a 
change of air,: that was fatal to him,: when the disease attacked 
a resistant. constitution,: where the mind and power of work 
was undiminished till the final houre: 

To complete these statements concerning such a noble fige 
ure,( it is unnecessary to say that the qualities of a private 
man,.'a man of family,: were at the elevation of the exception~ 
al gifts,: of which we have given but, a brief idea,. and that, ale 
ways ready to render service, his sincere kindmess without. 
triteness,: was open to whoever had recourse to hime} 

He was a fine specimen of humanity,: so that, the present, work, 
careful and scrupulous, shows one of the many sides under 
which he merits being given as an examples: 


April 27,: 1909.3 Jo. Le. Pascale; 


8 
eo" ° “MQITICN T2RIY BHT OF FOATHHS 
(e8aee aisizes s ni baa ,bfotows si Asow atdst Yo Htgivo aif 
Ppows . ‘a@tonidws ows aad di 
asodiee eft bas toned edt bad evewls eved 1 SV8l gout? 
etsey owd~ysdaews tot etetoetide1s gnidoses to Utilidienoge 
q ‘Dbavot I etedmud gatesotont déiw retleds ne Yo todoerib es 
| Batdosl ylsiasypertt oof aew egbelwoad [saad to ytemtig ted’ 
' totg A .tede! beflit ed oF tom dasid sg .aénebude ino ddiw 
‘ “bas Jeontse nee gavoy bottig s eee of atarthet witas1e to 
" Ylotem-setbute odd 10% beragetg¢ Yitoog gatviaze | avolitiaub 
| = deom edd seve son déiw> beteogtban . coifoutdsnt sousdo 
iw, sefthuda odt to etvian betevala bas avoitee edt to sabi 
Fe wine's eis Yo weiv [aduem s 10 solttaisgerq Ieoibodier juo 
miferq geist duoddiw bane atiaviv {Lite ed [toa odd T1 -.s12 
| Putase*etat rena ns eeoubou aetto dotdw\,aotsoutsent he 1 
meee: od [ftw toszaetoty edd to dead af3 tots ,egod yam 
a8» bemr0? ybsertia aemoo dnsbutea soog edd ti -.{utiiortt sod 
aot opabeapadl bus Yilezsneh Sat roszetgig add .bise nedto 
lies at? = ladesf{ oot si fi Jedd wid miotai 
to ‘ guthaseicos _— bas aids woud diguad oved tedt ff 
“ ce? bie 4s Tefuset aids yall 
caries Yietdo agedieq tud:,2zncase1 ease tot yLlénebive 
by @ 0% gefantged Sbods tot bobuednt food someon on at stedd 
: mend dosed at gaitdadsebar saodt 10% tedtien » ) eigsoetidors 
BR ibartess T*agdesn edd, bus [igqug ed? to dood eid? .ednouels 
-) dead eldeishienos ey rerrener edi neged bas tqwedds of 
Om t9d1e ni bessons Jfginm I Jedd {[oIees bas kaideotedat 
joeteb edi Yo eoneixeqxe to bas satdoass to aise¥ ysaews sadé 
og ‘e83tebude af 
tassel si" belles od biddaas Merete ye of: .dood aid? 
3 ‘aap oad -s"etndoedidosd 
ed? " ni aatsoo add ddiw hegiedo need senta eved I tua 
ikaw: ‘eei1v00 ata? sesh ent¥ %6 Loode? odd J3@ “exudosdidaca 
Mg iat ‘nétiesiéadi eds eoxixqmos hae $08f at em yd beonemmoo 
betgoo ai Eonanrnete letenes #31 -.ersdoetiders Yo selgioniig 
ar eee wn zawolfot ea s10d 
= (QTHA BUTT TO JOOHOS JATONGe GHA JAMOTTAX 
© “Hewwsoedtdora to ytoedT af eaiv0d to emmerg0149 
] ‘To moidisogqmoo eft tosido esti 16% esd sain0e aint 
Reemaetiserone odd dtiw .yietitae bas eftaemele rledd ai 


8 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST BDITION,; 

The origin of this work is twofold,: and in a certain sense 
it has two authors} 

Sinee 1872, I have always had the honor and the seréous ree 
sponsibility of teaching architecture; for twenty-two years 
as director of an atelier with increasing numbers,: 1 found 
that primary or basal knowledge was too frequently lacking 
with our students, a blank not. to be filled later.: A professe- 
or greatly regrets to see & gifted young man,: earnest, and ine 
dustrious,: arriving poorly prepared for the studies merely 
chance instruction,: undigested,: with not, even the most, remote 
idea of the serious and elevated nature of the studies,: with= 
out methodical preperation or a mental view of the realm of 
art.) If the soil be still virgin and without, false prelimén- 
ary instruction,: which often produces an indelible stain,: one 
may hope,: for the task of the professor will be difficult,: 
but. fruitful.; If the poor student, comes already formed,: as 
often said,. the professor must generally and conscientously 
inform him,: that it is too latel 

All that have taught know this and cannot. contradict, me.; 
Why this result? 

Evidently for. many reasons, but. perhaps chiefly because 
there is no common book intended for thode beginning to study 
architecture,: neither for those undertaking to teach them its 
elements.: This book of the pupil and,the master I. desired 
to attempt. and. began its preparation,: @ considerable task, : 
interesting and useful, that, I might. succeed in after more 
than twenty years of teaching and of experience of the defects 
in students.. 

This book, in my opinion,: should be called "The Elements of 
Architecture". | 

But I have since been charged with the course in " Theory of 
Architecture" at the School of Fine Arts.; This course was 
commenced by me in 1894 and comprises the instruction in the 
principles of architecture.; Its general programme is copied 
here as followsieu~ 

NATIONAL. AND SPECIAL. SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS.) 
Programme of Course in Theory of Architecture.} 
"This course has for its object, the composition. of, edifices 
in their. elements. and entirety,: with the. gwofold view of the 


. e 
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rs. * sitaemotivpet 
le edd betbude pay ena ed [fiw tasq teatt edd al" 
divsey): ,awobatw ..2100b ».2ebsots  ,atebio . ,allew .o.f -.yaqotg 
++ adnemele xolgqmoo etom edd aedd 7.0d¢ ,atoor> agatlies 
je) 2diu0o  ,ettads -eooiiiog codoteg  eeludliésev. .alilaed 
k odd bedaildedee gaived tzotia :,isagq basoees edt al " 
Isqtonizq edd bethyte od {Lin ,sottiaognoo Yo eeigionirxg 
Oi{dug tot: .visdifim.[ivio  ,aveigifar --:eeoitibe to ze 
et etom edd dose tot gaivid.,aimiiiewbh etaviug bae aseog 
efit Qniwode ,saeingauoo base edooge Lis at aelquaxe olde 
re @aodxe Jadw od bae wod hniatelgqxe sedd:,medd yd-beilatises 
abeon gnkselxe ot emoo of bettthom eve stnemettupes sacii 
os * eomgarso01g dagoes geom odd 
“ban cinsnanese diod.,édsat% yiev vitashive at istaedeaa oAT 
7) reeelibhuta betsvele er asihuds [Ia t0t. beosavhs 
bed I djadw wone yhusa of wieesooen eau fi gaiveo afds 10% 
oldigzned o¢ai eanebuoo at: ,eonte atasy yitct beibutea 
bertivupes oxitaumue of »,donidani as ylerem aatto wi ied 
pa Of ,atetsed Ragoy Yu tod es lleeya t6% douw oa fon eoaait 
ate: igh Daanes gaed edd need evsd etodmaun gatasetoni stove 
= ‘~e8t1otto 
| taunt bed I ire ede fqaoo baa tevo dtow gasm 1 yllesstsli 
‘od Sataeedhorg avewls. efidw bus ,eteantaged i902 beraaety 
sidus ao dowod gave I, vbode ile to ataed oft ataemsls edd 
i. bisoo I basd sedto edi ao oltidw.,medbbidiot ylrem10t 
Hey .slesdqme dviw asaemele odd [feoe1 nedd atom saigoo ald’ 
i etdd Yo fs fetgednt ne es [teteb at sedé &Batnielaxs don 
Bist» ae ae ‘efoktoutia 
| jt daildsq ton bisow I %i bedes aia yitasspe1? evad I 
( gatdeoiedai as 10% Iaiiedsm ylaisires at etedt :,eaasco | 
Re gr ".emdoodiderA to yioodT"® od Aluow oldtd Imigtsn osodw 
Gnidosl eauaced edelqmooni dtuodd,dood L[otees s Seebal 
jtorg edd yd betsqetq dood edt 11 .adnowels Iadnemsbhau’t 
 yliese josieh e-~ .yliquide ocd gods biseda 1stlede edd to 
ylno bisow yrosds to toagetosg odd yd ebam isdé-=,bettage? 
Roads 9s {eyontsot.edd to sgede buooee edd ta aiged 
40 Safonemmoo e2odt déod o¢ [nteeau ylisex Aiow 4 andT 
emne1Zo719 owd edd entdmoo Jaum>,adibuse ttedt al beoasy 
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wy 


— 
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@g 
art and of adaptation to definite programmes and to material 
~ requirements.” 

"In the first, part, will be successively studied the elements 
proper,: i.e... walls,: orders,: arcades,: doors,: windows,: vaults,\ 
ceilings,: roofs,: etc.3. then the more complex elements,: such as 
halls,: vestibules,: porches,: porticos,: stairs,: courts,: etc." 

"In the second part,: after having established the general 
principles of composition,: will be studisd the principal classe 
es of edifices:e- relisious,: civil,: militery,: for publie pure 
poses and private dwellings,: giving for each the more remarke 
able examples in all epochs and countries,: showing the needs 
satisfied by them,: then explaining how and to what, ext.ent, 
these requirements are modified to come to existing needs and 
the most, recent. programmes,;” 

The material is evidently very great,. both elementary and 
advanced, for all studies are elevated studies. 

For this course it. was necessary to study anew what, I. had 
studied forty years since,: to condense into tangible formulas 
what, is often merely an instinct,: to summarize acquired expe- 
rience, not. so much for myself as for my young hearers,: whose: 
ever increasing numbers have been the best reward for. my 
efforts. 

Naturally I must, work over and: complete what I had. first, 
prepared for beginners,: and. while always progressing toward 
the elements,: the basis of all study,: I. must, touch on subjects 
formerly forbidden,: while on the. other hand. I could not, in 
this course more than recall the elements. with emphasis,: yet. 
not. explaining them in detail as an integral part, of this ine 
struction.) 

I have frequently been asked if I would not, publish this 
course.) There is certainly material for an interesting work,: 
whose natural title would. be "Theory of Architecture.™ 

Indeed a useful book,: though incomplete because. lacking the 
fundamental elements,., If the book prepared by the professor 
of the atelier should stop too abruptly,--a defect. easily 
repaired,+--that, made by the professor of theory would only 
begin at the second stage of the journey.j 

Thus a work really useful to both those commencing or ade 
vanced in their studies, must, combine the two programmesr-=the 
explanation of the elementse-the theories resulting from thenm.; 


Of 
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daet odd (fe tiuset acibuts yismitg edd mort aedw,edselg 
sideq tatit edé to eotode ssdeaudioy odd Yo noltdeanslyxe as es 
laten yaisivser eldid odd evieoes bivoda dtow wldd eoaell 
BHLE =s~seaogqutg Hlotows aids mot? yl 
eb. 4 MRO TORTINORA.4O YSOGHT QUA STMENTIE 
 et0m has tedgal efi t03 eonia Vtoods Isitiai edd ylao Je 
# ,ee0titbe to noltdleoqmos [exeaeR edt, matdioq bodavele 
| tedel gu nedad od toaidue eldt YI .adimii we boeoxe blow 
oo ati bae>,dtow tedéone ed bivow aids ,xveddona to tMeayw 
» tot .ileays ‘dimil saug 1 wot «boatereded od sedt bivow soit 
| #@ Mt beetiqmos ed of tear oot et exutoatiders to ybute end 
apeees edi asdisedéex atnomunom edd weiver of y2emalev wet 
? Ege “stow yisdnesefle as aadt exom exiupest blyow exudostidoyvs 
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oats: od 4@q@ n90d ylinebive esd noitacup omeg edt ;.20thude 
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Yo arsbao. edt to esottsogetag to aeldat tediax 10. .¥%0 
> Jefebnot Yo evodd otf .adiow daelleoxe ets ered? sex 
7: o doldw at ecoitesotteib oals iyisdaemele ton tnd buen 
sedt .anciasuoetb bedavele otom ebtaed etedsen Yistaeme fo 
$neze1g Jonaso Jud ,soastete1 16% dnolleoxe tad¢a{ ers adios 
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*« 


10: 
I have combined both,: adding the first elements of the course 
in theory,: the more logical since dividing lines are quite ar- 
bitrary,: and if a book may be incomplete when assuming primae 
ry studies as already completed,: yet, the book ought, to be come= 
plete,: when from the primary studies result, all the rest,: just, 
as an explanation of the fortunate choice of the first. path. 

Hence this work should receive the title resulting natarale 
ly from this twofold purposei-= 

ELEMENTS AND THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE.) 

Yet. only the initial theory,: since for its later and more 
elevated portion,: the general composition of edifices,: this 
would exceed my limits., If this subject be taken up later by 
myself or another, this would be another work,: and its concep- 
tion would then be determined.; Now I must, limit, ayself,: for 
the study of architecture is too vast to be comprised in a 
few volumes; to review the monuments rather than the means. of 
architecture would require more than an elementary worke, 

Thus I hold to its well marked character as en elementary 
work.; Just, as in teaching literature are the transcendent, 
lectures of Villemain and of Nisard,: with more modest, text= 
books signed by Burnouf or Quicherat,: it. is the classbook 
‘within reach of beginners that, 1 desire to publish.) 

And why? Because it, is lacking.) 

Sinee I have had the honor of teaching architecture,: abnor- 
mal things have frequently ocourred.; Young men intending to 
study our. art-eor their relatives+«have requested me to 
name an elementary work for guiding them in their first, labors,: 
or to prepare them for the time of specializing in their 
studies. The same question has evidently been put. to all 
teachers, and all alike have replied,: that such a work does not, 
exist.; Vignola is indeed found, who Represents a sort of the- 
orye, or rather tables of proportions of the orders of architect: 
ure; there are excellent, works,: like those of Rondelet or Rey= 
naud,: but; not, elementary; also dictionaries in which occur 
elementary matters beside more elevated discussions. These 
works are later. excellent. for reference,: but, cannot present. 
the logical order of ‘the studies, because arranged by chance 
alphabetically,: first, defining “abacus",: certainly not, the 
first, thing to be known,; and several volumes later is found 
"“wall",: which indeed should. appear before abacus in the aSaty-d | 


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ee £5 188 8 oem yd bewottivem aloed ed? Yo bean 
“Yo ysluottTip ont etididxe seneitegxe aidd tevos10e 


a @ basdetobau ybude yd bedotine eteisiA ;.d10w a douse gai 
mu sheubnal s deoge of YIsessoen Sted at di yadaid yd teddo 
: a. betinpes oie ancitexdisvomebh yarsbeet od3 od awond 
ad taedef {{ite eds mo tom beagore noliesoaqat edt ao gat 
ns ed of ef dta ag elfidw.,esasiaa 6 at 23 beea0rg of 
ie oda sdaidiat of ~alegat Jadéd aeonyib hiova of yilent? 
des wodé bis eaimorq oF «,dnemyo(ine oltaiayve beautaco 
ine ai>,tobis eavyots has soneilinco exigemi at :yloque 
¥aeseoen  eausood dood ym e1sbne" ;s19bas1 Savoy of yew 
a * boat beaisoig edd tedae soy Lisda 
eaus aiihaiehtia vee’ yinrd »,xtow aids nedatvebay sved I 
eta iw djqed Ti ylialwotiseg ),esoalutsens adi to beonivaco 
jooside1d Yo a2dasuels Ksotieroeds odd ;doatdue ym Yo adits 
ere atasen ya ean Od Yisaeccss od yeu di eqgadied :.e1 
3 tbe taonmuc Pisa: ¥ es ‘ebtow seeds 
neragge ne 200 YIev. danas ad sed eissoos ido 


* 
I 


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11 

Yet every art or science has its elementary books as guides 
for the beginner,: and if logic and connection impose somee- 
thing, this certainly is when young men commence a study,: of 
which they have no idea.) Why this lack?: 

Doubtless the list of architectural publications is rich;. 
men of great talent, have made known the most beautiful mone 
uments,: some like Penrose devoting themselves to a marvellous 
edifice and a minute analysis of its details; others like Lee 
tarouilly spending an entire life in drawing the edifices of 
a city unequalled in the arts; others proceed by comparison, 
thoroughly treating everything relating to a family of build- 
ings; finally are very numerous monographs of past or contempe 
orary monuments.; All these form a precious library and a very 
rich collection,: our art, in this respect having no need to 
envy any other branch of knowledge... 

Indeed it, is evident that enthusiastic artists may have 
been induced by a fine subject or. tts novelty to reproduce it. 
definitely and completely.) This is more: attractive than the 
composition of an instructive work for beginners.) What, is 
most interesting in teaching is the advice given to the more 
advanced students,: but. not the instruction of beginners.) Per- 
haps experience in teaching is necessary to a the. eat 
need of the book mentioned by me. | hae Te 

Moreover this experience exhibits the difficulty of compos- 
ing such a work.) Artists enriched by study understand each 
other by hints; it is here necessary to speak a language une 
known to the readers;. demonstrations are required,: never count}~ 
ing on the impression aroused nor on the still latent taste;- 
to. proceed as in a science,: while an art.is to be exhibited; 
finally to avoid dryness that repels; to initiate into still 
confused artistic enjoyment,: to promise and show rather than 
supply; to inspire confidence and arouse ardor,: in brief to 
say to young readers; "endure my book because necessary,: then 
shall you enter the promised land." 

I. have undertaken this work,: truly fearful,: only because 
convinced of its usefulness,: particularly if kept within the 
limits of my subject; the theoretical elements of architect} 
ure.) Perhaps it may be necessary to explain my meaning 3 
these words.: 

Architecture has a single very clear and apparent, reason 


toe © Re ee ee 
bid A a7 ? 


gt 

oY odd {le-emne hiow aidl .towrdanoo of yoonedeixe 10? 
+ e%0dee% 10 ee se 48VI9e80%g OF ,toetiders edd Yo 
Pe hot: ‘etoustt#anoo of [itda at 
he ‘efots odd Yo sagem baa eacqtug edd dtod at tovrdenoo of 
| adi bait ow “soodtisiors" brow edd to yZolomyde et yd séooft 
=) S.10sou1saqoo tetaem" yootitatteh s et dotdw:,eanss soaxe 
#t jewdstootidors ni tisg seet3 8 ayelg nokdeurtenoo Ti tu 
Uae ebeon bane avsi yiadnewele bas {sxeneg adi yd ateeqqs yao 
> “fO 43%6 ai asdowseaet bas aethute edd to aninatged edd 
edd» eseido1g bas sasem adi Yo ybuda ofllinetos edd yiaxd 
edd aedw>,1e3sI emoo yYIno aso enatisatidmos eft to Lord 
61 bas amio? of d to sebi dnetotiiva « aed ybeeria Jasb 
da toaxsanoo at dedw awode ed dgenm daxit Js exndestidess Yo 
a@ ed ago noftousdeanos ed? saseu gadwu qd eea tede{ Iliw ef 
f ono ylandiverq gaiddonce Yo #etisxileet odd 9. b bore 
a } ytsdtatlerg €1s steanibed tot bézeqgeta asibuds es aud? 
Dmatointenos Yo seehi yIno Bileliqnoe> sakionvienoo to s80d3 
£7 Sabai 18 -SeeBbioesedds mort? sedd medd wode oale I :ydili¢ 
Shs meds od niaiqxe ton of I dud.,am10d lerssos J tiove 
non etolcetq edi ai aids bait Iliw yedl .neisoartenoe to 
Monod of evad don ob I jenna! rossetor? bednemal eda 
aeies ") “sfengem'eciniteh « ct mid yd bojserd etootdza 
yaaa aaa G3 nadd-seddtnt on beeosotgq Ifaedea I 
G dadw eeu of wi saogmeo of -.emmetzo1g end Yo nolidnvioe offs 
pe iidenoo etil tant aleaizvetsm edi eat noidieoqmod ~ewoad 

Pie tap ioesitors Yo ednemole edd exe aleixedam eeods bos 
in. ade bas eolst mot) eogades nalidiseqnooeebiees 
Tietoeds seetiqnco Yleorsea Jud. beiispoe ylinebive 
"Yo dasq odd Ore [sndeveq yleviine ef JI .tottourie 
PROT 6°%0% ebsatt eno yebost jad o8 pJserk af Fi wt 
6Jzey ~~ stgitons epee Jud. ,noidlecqmos yoqsd s 
hg +e . ".ROVION © 
execeng os ads ei noidouijeni io efor beitese edt 

‘eo i Jeon dove bus >.eletiesen ett doelfoo od) walsizeod 
 onltgedy #donneo jadi. .eetbute yYisming ef 3 Yo eaog « 
steoquco ni ineisequi edtup exe dest te einebuse heed 
eso  Loodee eft od doteginbs vot adesd? efi at eanaoed 
f ef of eitgeh yeds meds sort heriuper ai dosede s 
eoquoe Ileme ss yse.t woldasagetg duofiiw foJede s 
| 8 00d +e Line de higiaiorcomel bas. bod den hed A 


We 
r, : ah ‘Ms SS 7 ie RTs 
| 7 ‘ae 


r ~ 


he» 


athens 


en a: 0 VA ; ; , 


142 
for. existence; to construct,: This word sums all the functions 
of the architect, to preserve,: maintain,: repair. or restore 
is still to construct... 

To construct, is both the purpose and means of the arche 
itect; by the etymology of the word "architect" we find its 
exact sense,: which is a definition; "master constructor,;" 

But if construction plays a great, part in architecture; it. 
only appears by its general and elementary laws and needs at, 
the beginning of the studies and researches in art;. on the cone 
trary the scientific study of its means and problems,: the con- 
trol of its combinations can only come later,: when the stue 
dent already has a sufficient idea of the forms and resources 
of architecture; at. first. must, be shown what, is constructable;. 
he will later see by what; means the construction can be en= 
sured,d.e@.,the realization of something previously conceived.: 

Thus tha studies proposed for beginners are preliminary to. 
those of construction,: comprising only ideas of constructa- 
bility; I. also show them that from these ideas are derived thse 
architectural forms,: but, I. do not, explain to them the science 
of construction.) They will find this in the precious work of 
the lamented Professor Bnune; I do not have to touch on the 
subjects treated by him in a definite manner.: 

I. shall proceed no further than to composition,: 1.6-,t#0 
the solution of the prosgranme,; Po compose is to use what one 
knows,: Composition has its materials just, like construction, : 
and these materials are the elements of architecture.) 

Besides, composition escapes from rules and formulas,: it. is 
evidently acquired,: but, scarcely comprises theoretiaal ine 
struction,; It, is entirely personal and the part of good fortune 
in it is great; so that. today one finds for a programme quite 
a happy composition,: but. perhaps nothins for yesterday or to- 
MOLT LO We} | vi 

The assured role of instruction is then to peepare for com= 
position, to collect its materials,: and such must be the pur- 
pose of the primary studies,: that, cannot be too thorough. In- 
deed students at. first are quite impatient in composition; 
because in its tests for admission to the School of Fine Arts 
a sketch is required from them, they desire to learn to make 
a sketch without, preparation,: i.e.,: a small composition.: 

A bad method and necessarily sterile,: too stronsly recalling 


| 
| 


me. 5 
a) 


er 


A be 1a 6 4G 45 | ‘seedabibawsos 101 
Ti chdedbzent 8 éfunsad 101 soitlsoqmeos dechom daom edd al 

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— Josr0ngt ei eno nedw doe{idue eidd déiiw enobh ed nae tadh :.ode 


Rael ie amedd avaed ,esedd woad don of oeog 
diw eyswis <yeoibude {0 Joeido deati edd vidoohbive ei exedT 
“bhéesebhienoe ed nao esibuge edd %0 sotssoq on dadd evieeet edd 
 ) etive? jeervd djnosdiw wod jdgned sf Ligue edT ;.bedte Iqmon ov) 
7 Yi» ,elil exidne eid ni gud qwobniw 10 s00b & dwo yel ad 
 s00b- se eisa of wod nisel of encididns ed ILiw odo jeidse os 
a ‘bas odnamesS aedd > .ydsinptins tedd eos [Liw od ywobatw vo 
i27Gb edd avode [lew eves :,emid awo of nadn@ vo ond ,oiies 
pd yisdnonole mies I. dadt ,ybadte eidd to yailidon bas yi 
is RP: / «teddeo 
| )si gedw yino dosed nao ow).en ogsces eddgied evedd Jto% 
| snot sitens bag” Yiisrodiue eldeieednoont yd se wileotkol bev 
Paigh te. Sane camel tonrsent booyed av of enisiveqgs gaiddoll 
- dots to » dnome le feoidjetoeds ens to doldenelgxe edd tof 
f ie metgzorq eidd od bedinil Ii edelqnoont ed bInow exnsoes 
= ee 1006 ef'd' es dove ersdoedidors 10 ednenois eid seew 
omg ‘ednemele edt sod eos Ig 6 ei noitiacquoo L[ateseh bas 
| ‘etiidd oteloxe IIin eiquexe aa ankike 
i © néisia: déiwibepasdo ef Jeadiders se Jadd onneed 
aie s1RO1g- bebnedxe seel 10 exom eff re guerxs Leodos ea +t07 
aNdiotviv \,28e098 eite Io gexs bedimil nedto bas maod 
610n o&lg ed To ybude eid eta adoowetinper Ieloege 
ndidizognoe wl aldd ;doelerq asel 10 et10m ,avoivedel 
coreselo & .ye10%led hoodetebay ed dens epaidd wledreo 


“a as Y 


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eres 8 Od qh tibved od yen ozedd bas  ,nolileogmoo 
Ae ©) ) ssttew eidd Yo eacasua techom edd el stad? 
inate: edd mxot eeeg ot eyewls doos I+ boriten. so8. 


ae , dnebsts. edt .gnthosses vd ebeeooag Ils susdoedi 
ae exoted enoh ead seisvduso io r0dsi etd ded 


oe gama bos ehh eaeat aoe Io. eeoueb 


se 
ae ae ee 
Junge 
un? 
es 


iteesvot: bemsed e1s doidw>enctdentinexe 103 gnireqe1q efoodos © 


cod edead ai exsnniged wo Teoiniee to wobniw. 00h s» Io° 


us tefid bedavele seol on dey, ,ednemelo edd ylleet eis ocvedi 


wode od ego I gawondan od nwond hort \,xeLquos 


Breeertrstiny wiesten: edd ,eboen viemiag: odd dexii 


13 
schools preparing for examinations,: which are termed "ovens" 
for candidetes.: 

In the most, modest, composition,: for exaaple a guardhouse,: 
there will always be walls,: doors,: windoss,: a cornice,: a roof 
etc.; What. can be done with this subject. when one is ignorant. 
of a door,: window or. cornice? Now beginners in haste to come 
pose do. not, know these.: Learn thea.: 

There is evidently the first, object. of studies; always with 
the reserve that, no portion of the studies can be considered 
as completed.; The pupil is taught, how without, great, faults 
to lay out, a door or window; but, in his entire life,: if truly 
an artist,: he will be ambitious to learn how to make a door 
or. window; he will see that, antiquity,: then Bramante and Sane 
gallo,: Duc or Duban in our time,: have well shown the difficule 
ty and nobility of this study,: that, I term elementary because 
these are really the elements,: yet no. less. elevated than any 
other.,: 

Yet. vaeee heights enone us,: We can hesah only what, is BEO© 
Nothing apportatier, to. us beyond sank xatenee 

Yet the explanation of the theoretical elements of archi- 
tecture would be incoaplete if limited to this programme,) Bet- 
ween the elements of architecture,: such as the door or window,: 
and general somposition is a place for the elements of compo- 
sition. An example will explain this..: 

Assume that an architect. is charged with making a project, 
for a school group.; The more or less extended programme, the 
form and often limited area of site,. access,: viwinity,: and 
special requirements make the study of the plan more or less 
laborious,: more or less prefect;. this is composition. But 
certain things must be understood before;. a classroom,: yard,: 
restaurant,: room for drawing etc.) These are elements of the 
composition, and these may be taught up to a certain point. — 

That, is the modest. purpose of this work,: : 

For method,: I. seek always to pass form the simple to the 
complex,: from known to. unknown; I. hope to show that. in arche 
itecture all proceeds by reasoning. The student. should repeat 
what. the labor of centuries has done before hin; to recognize 
first the primary needs, the primary means and the first, evio 
dences of art; later the complex and refined elements, 


fr 
ed (yadnemerinpet hedact1qaoo e108 tol bedseito ole sevieeneds 
| | bes elquie ezedd noented naivoennoo w si exedd dadd eee snum 
aid ed osls ILiw sedd eonsvbe [avbevk @.,ednemele bavogmoo 
of ytrs aid to dcemqofeveb [aolgol edi eos ands [Lin md jwie 
 daew Jedd Yo eeianineo dpuoids eeexgo1gq eft baedoramoo {ftw 
efiidnoo doidw bas). bedsiegooo aed toisasiLivie yteve dofdw ai 
fditentoteses3 to bas snemevom to wal {saved ‘etd yedo et sex 
gia Lenaidnevnce odd esthude ave set senha jon ob I awd 
A sews: ni oiitnebeq s1s9eqqs o¢ we0el don bib I ti bas ,taiog ai 
— blvow, bod sow yuo dedd ysae bluode I. ,biew euoididws ood a gat 
a bea. ‘eeeersotq lainemitegxe to potieallisney edi ed 
q . Teer yteve exid weviasloxe ed tonseo hoddem 8 fone 
_» oI seeeelorg ss jnds.snctareys bos eeoneretetq ym ever yeu 
 -» stoidsoinuumooxe ion beeto wourss 6 bedisonos t9ven eved 
mid Yo omen edd ai Jadd oaoidourtent aisinedae tetitien fT 


“ae 0 eneeto2 owd neewded Blessi asude dotdw ywege © [hbin 
“e Y.edd teddo,edd bas desqg edd gnilaeonco eno eilew ores 
Sona doidw *) oa od ngisi0? ei new gatnteones gridiuoh" 
0.8 Jno il emet binode ciseitis gniddon" :20 102 alas 
‘% e * eelbude 
Dae HO 080 88 107 Jgdw soqgn dove! o¢ eved too ob I dud 
| idqeoxe nogh ton ,enkine os 10 gatedosddelib %o Joatde 
fe Lavcisqooxe seotw iod..eeteons? gntarede ylinavpest od 
i i oo »eeibude [scitteresdd ave ehiledso modd eevee! sed 
pesai Igeasucineds! ybsetis st dtodd Enge-ylsesbo¥ 
flo eldiasog es oitenedeyases Yrcdneyni se edvebnia 
sit 13" mod d od yas, I seusdoedidorws to ynomindag healtnp 
ae... [fin nov ,ooidouideni mor? gniwond jeacodo medd 


Rega) eg? | ",moboest — 


me eke fe sasoitoeide bednesetg ed hoebal yen atoll 
| a ane otifineioe «..buiow a ylevem ei bodiew aso¥ 
! gent So edefenoo ti. besootg oe tor e90b f1e ibicee ed 
, TOY KE Jovbude eid opidoindess yd bas ,abat? bas 


| Biseticcise bae-asebi aid yiiele? soy) .eeires 1u0y bas 


> hy A 


ae eid Ife yd daidie oe as aid sididxe of eenoo 
ih inated eved ylgnidtinwan yeu of dada IIe 


2) % ‘A 


ie chen. 
as 


ad Yo oman end ai dedi tom :,perze elbbinw edd sioeier expid— 


betiqved: {fiw eidd [fe » gniddemos niamer Iliw exedd 
i” bug» ddéina.s\emooed (Liw end ganigsot yd jbegasi1e 


T . J y A 
eR ean ea ee cy 


14 

themselves also created for mors complicated requirements; he 
must. see that there is a connection between these simple and 
compound elements, a gradual advance that, will also be his 
aim; he will thus see the logical development. of his. art,: he 
‘will comprehend the progress through centuries of that. work 
in which every civilization has cooperated,: and which contine 
ues to obey the ternal law of movement and of transformation,- 

Thus I. do not. adopt. for our studies the conventional starte- 
ing point,: and if I. did not fear to appear pedantic in employe 
ing a too ambitious word,: 1. should say that our method would 
be the verification of experimental progress,: 

Such a method cannot be exclusive; ike every artist,: L 
may have my preferences and aversions,: but, as professor I. 
have never conceibed a narrow creed nor. excommunication,: 

I neither entertain instruction that in the name of the an- 
tique rejects the middle ages,: nor that in the nane of the» 
middle agew,: which shuts itself between two screens or. Chi» 
nese walls,: one concealing the past and the other the futures) 

"Nothing concerning man is foreign to me," which may be 
translated for us; “nothing artistic should remain outside our. 
studies," ie: 

But, I do. not, have to touch upon what for us can only be an 
object, of dilettanteism or an enigma,: nor upon exceptions due 
to frequently charming fancies,: but. whose exceptional - charace 
ter leaves them outside our theoretical studies.: 

Modestly--and that. is already laborious-~-a!: place before 
students an inventory as systematic as possible of the ace 
quived patrimony of architecture; 1. say to them, "Know first, 
then choose; knowing from instruction,: you ae select, with 
freedom." . ’ 

Here may indeed be presented objections.} 

Your method is merely a word,: a scientific expression, may 
be said; art does not so proceed, it consists of inspirations 
and finds, and by restricting the student, in your deductions 
and your series,: you falsify his ideas and aspirations; let. 
him do like us,: see,, try everything,: explore perhaps by eneane;: 
there will remain something,: all this will be piled and 
arranged; by forging hwe will become a smith,: and a fine day 
comes to exhibit. him as an artist by all his attempts,: and by 
all thet. he may unwittingly have received from the enclosing 


Rf P 
eeibsde alieidas eid Jo etedqeonis 
a0} tedsed ai Aniddon yyee oats ileada I bas ..vloiasredum 
«bei qnexe edeiice ents diiw sotistooess nasd toantbed end 
) ait asonioqnueer¢ : enoiiidme exutaserg seve .,pecnestini bao 
ape hee aob1e tuondiw eno of -.saiseves L[soinemido xo yailev 
103 ebam ton seihuie oideiius sobsade ybise ed dave eonebt? 
fot sodel I jadi ,beveifed orew Ji Li Jexgea binode I bad twoy 
is faeddoa owd edd diiw bedtis ton eaols s0o1) ,erceselg Lisme 
| Pky jtoldidma bas eblig jtalixze edd of Ydigeeoen tatit edi to 
pe ja ova niemer Ifiw base exeonigzed Jud e1e avebset ya teY 

ne eeibuss ateds baedxe Liiw yedd rede :,¥00d edd Yo hae 
etomedis Isnceteo to ..csenblod Jo teasso e641) afd ao t6dne 
on jadimil adi ead beobai Snidosel -.abaii Yo eqefseq bas 
 tedase ed 103 >,sonefidsel gs otam oF wor ennitol fioweed blyoe 
noo edd eatiad oF editive Jon blvuow noldonuritdani oe bib 
eid 0 10 19799 .2 Yo semeb odd .,emed extod to ebsosd edd Yo. 
q Yo atodivg ef¢ 208 :,ebtoon0D #ef ob soe lG edd 10 ,ebilevel 
apes. bas sisinedan to bezogeib eexsiourta In.idused over’ 
Setisne edi to ebish od bnederg dou ob [ .2inemole bedrad Yo 
Ty Hetsd od of dnemgtupe efi edaotbab of Ylno  yenrHos 
vom et ae ‘OK Ted%e giimoo 
2 izes nngel eno Jjadd wonkt 1 ..baed tedio edd no ned 
'd mort .jeoitias don ob stood ‘bas aiqeoetq iaits edd onole 
729 eves ol j.elamaxe bas ecivbe UIBBERLOH O12 taltoniged 
‘§asoy edd teddy? (been eidd o3 anibsoqrestos etelifleds 
t 10 Hofensm fenredeq efd ni veaidowog :,o611 exom ei tneb 
Bet Inespet? wiquedsa Javii edd ohes ed deus foodos, taelbos 
) hisdteons ed Meemid ILiw todourdanl yretoqmet to shing 
Dare ditabon emos ico eonedo fd od ¢tefl.ed ILin sennised edd 
ti ae audT ;.eofods 10 sonenpee duondtinv beisoo1g:,bad 10 
emulov «'setasa end. gntien Avotdiw ,etood lsolaasio yis 
iii beoehal eveiled Eo, Lbawe eid vot Jadi te d1a gre dnsoo 
Fi figug ens ct se totlossé sd of Ivteen as ed Iftw dood 
Oofes Isnick to dtoe & 26 bebssger od yom Ji dedd dante — 
a . setndoesdinors of eeibose yramirg eft tot 
3a ney tenesere vibsd ees ylineupett aod ew dadi iseqes I 
inal Heve semisends jersey jaol diiw ylbsd gainnigzed nea 
“te ood da di bos bensacian od deom eidd Ile >.emtd sacl 
evae ed yen omit -.see1s9 etidne se etebnid goisotged bed 
ame sic * Seg hina yiev et aidd bans : ‘toldersqetg tested 


a a 


 * a ; . ‘ x ; 
‘ “ ‘ “ ’ ; ' yen oS 
ioe 1° im as iy «oe a oa aay +. P A . y oe eae y 


15. 
atmosphere of his artistic studies.) 

--Certainly,: and I. shall also say; nothings is better for 
the beginner than association with true artists, examples,: 
good influences,: even premature ambitions,: presumptuous rie 
valry or chimerical reveries.’ To one without, ardor and cone 
fidence must be said; abandon artistic studies not made for 
youl And I should regret if it, were believed,: that. I labor for 
small pleasure,: for those not gifted with the two mottal sins;. 
of the first necessity to the artist;. pride and ambition,.; 

Yet, my readers are but beginners and will remain such at; the 
end of the book.; hater they will extend their studies and 
enter on the free career of boldness,: of personal attempts 
and perhaps of finds.: Teaching indeed has its limits; no one 
could teach Ictinus how to make a Parthenon,: for the master 
did: so; instruction would not suffice to cause the conception 
of the facade of Notre Dame,: the domes of S,.: Peter or of the 
Invalids,: or the Blace de la Concorde,: But, the authors of 
these beautiful structures disposed of materials and made use 
of tested elements.; I. do not pretend to guide for the entire 
journey; only to andicats the equipment to be taken by those 
Goming after mee: 

Then on the other hand,: I know that, one cannot easily study 
alone the arts; precepts and books do not. suffice; from the 
beginning are necessary advice and example.; We have in Paris 
ateliers correspondins to this need; further the youns stue 
dent is more free,: Sometimes in the paternal mansion or in a 
modest school aust. be made the first attempts; frequently the 
guide or temporary instructor will timself be uncertain,: and 
the beginner will be left to the chance of some models,: good 
or bad,: procured without, sequence or choice.; Thus as in element, 
ary classical books,: without making the master’s volume a 
counterpart of that for the puwoil,: I. believe indeed that my 
book will be as useful to the teacher as to the pupil,: and I 
trust that it may be regarded as a sort. of Normal Sekoot book 
for the primary studies in arshitecture,: 

I. repeat that we too frequently see badly prepared young 
men beginning badly with lost. years; sometimes even more than 
lost time,. all this must. be unlearned and it, BB too late; a 
had beginning hinders an entire carser.: Time may be saved by 
better: preparation, and this is very important in our lengthy 


or 


“eeibute 
\ sgoetidoss edd emis ano al -eetstives eoet eno taum niass 
q Joetidows atebom edT ,osm bedsonbe base auoliee 6 ed Jaum 
Ake es nofdshtsemt elisvet? s  .anilee? oldeisws ».edeed ehbesn 
“Ht seornoeet ni ysilivast  ,cense [enidiio es ,erxhelwoadk ee 
Siwetee? avo dedW ,bedjaotiqnas evom eyawis senmatgorgd Yo ease 
| Bniddon etow atnemetiuper bne e¢icinotttib es evloe of bat 
bos nise!l tevn ow yen no beeoqnt exeldorq odd Ile eblecd 
‘bebie«ynes yrev s ed tenn yebos dostifnors edT .ervom bas exom 
mgs 8éi hos notJouidenoo of Bnideler Ile 10d deténeios ¢ jaan 
| @%idne edd Yo sthefwond bawotowg Yo segs cals +.enolsaotlg 
@tiine edd ai satire ne Yllantt yerudoediioise Yo ynowinsac 
O8ea bos: ecisninoh .eetetineonoo Jjadd tts as Yo ytlwolvegue 
lida ef{don eiom on ei evedT .edis teddo edd sedatio 
egooce ed? nett eee! watidon yenorbh ts evom enon af siedd 
Rasiess evoisee geom odd bas veisivesl estevib teem ed3 io .- 
Bh en setts bas’ 6onetoe » ¢dguods Yo-emleot odd at nots 
ae Yo disq s ai [wean Ileaeyw edew 63 horevesbne oved I 
dd ane J ed bidede bas yam sdatiw tnteislyxe yd notdertsecerts 
om p dose 10% -.eeibusde sedtal to mobsert of d Enidoiniees tuo 
ay 


aa 


“esd dnabitaod bas seaivbs ),eolodo eid to sed20m oft 2 
> Joa daoo doertb ond yteeesoen &1 e1redd ynolidifaogmoo Yo ele 
fe orgioss 1 notisvedslion yiieb > .eisam ent bas tnebude offd 
o Lites end segnol on sé eno etedw s¥tdaquye [enoe1sd bre 
“BEAT. tebdxs ns Yo Slotoeib of yLno sod 8 16 Sootoe 
‘oa ei deers bos Joegeet ) .gifebnaiat te [vt et not 
i a iics’sexs bus Joogeet \,eosebitnes Yo eno elux yueve 
' mot) beviesss od vem daddt Ils eevieoet Jeidve Savoy 
2 6 eid 102 ebndidges§ tnetoitive evsd seven [fiw ed bas 
gee ebbat elbnte e\atd 10% enisner eredd biewredté 


TY eciense: afd gail ioexe yd BeetZ0714 to wel edd sees 
on ‘ Be Baie ia? Ay 
hese 


16 
studies,: 

Again must one face realities.; In our time the architect, 
must, be a serious and educated man. The modern architect. 
needs taste,: artistic feeling,: a fertile imasination,: as well 
as knowledge,: a critical sense, fertility in resources in 
case of progranmes always more complicated,.; What our fethers 
had to solve as difficulties and requirements were nothing 
beside all the problems imposed on us;. we must learn and know 
more and more. The architect. today must be a very manyesided 
man; a scientist for all relating to construction and its ap- 
pliscations,: also a pan of profound knowledge of the entirs 
patrimony of architecture; finally an artist in the entire 
superiority of an art. that, concentrates,: dominates,: and asso- 
Ciates the other arts.; There is no more noble career,: but. 
there is none more arduous; nothins less than the cooperation 
of the most. diverse faculties and the most. serious prepara 
tion in the realas of thought,: science and art.) 

I. have endeavored to make myself useful in a part. of this 
preparation by explaining what, may and should be taught with- 
out. restricting the freedom of later studies,.; For each one 
is the master of his choice,: adviser and confidant. ibthe tri-« 
als of composition; there is necessary the direct contact of 
the student and the master,: daily collaboration,: reciprocal 
and personal sympathy; where one 6s no longer the pupil of a 
school or a book,: only the disciple of an artist.This instruct- 
ion is full of friendship,: respect and trust, is beyond 
every rule one of confidence, respect and friendship; the 
young artist receives all that, may be received from others, : 
and he will never have sufficient sratitude for his menmories,: 

Afterward there remains for hin: a single judge and adviser,: . 
himself,- All that. may bhenceforth be desired for him is to | 
confirm the law of progress by excelling his masters, 


= 


Agrt/ 

sGEIGUTE YAOTAHA WAY ;,1 #008 
indoeticayA Yo yaoedT ak easis0od edd of soldouborial 

f > MOIDTOUAT2UI YSAKIMivaAs Lf sargaHD | 
SA =~ ,8eibude Yiedinilerg to ydisseoeHow, YAAMMUC 
_- evidgqinoeeb » woitisneddsm jseihtda oliidneto@w~ -.soisourseni 
~ sewobade gniosrT~- .exudoedidors of poidacilgqgie= ;.yrdemces 
en ee ‘shailobom bae gniwarda= ,evidoogeisq Io eseblan 
) has oneizeetorg & ez00d5 oc emoo ead emits odds nam sano! 
dedd ti vol. ifew at dad? wesndosdidors seeodo evad BOY 
baa: tuttsssed gisv desel gs ef dt .areddo gnomes sivoitith od 
“etom ceiwedil ;d18 evidsero bas [wees elt ylrsisetdisg et 
egbe Iwony blotiasm,.eeibsde gaol: to dte odd. ,1eddo yas osdd 
Be Rirngd ae): reddawodd evekiee bre 
ever voy gdeuns I. ttdeatesddne bane dnelieqni ers soy toY 

— bas esenod jusoo :,areetado «elesboddeo wo) barttwbe 
8 Yo sseth [fiw soy .cisd suoy ai wouromot st8dta bas 
‘si ansiq ed tegsq mo bafosic to 2eotitbe evolleviem 
i, ©) “s@idvsem bag: enosje to esinoigmye od ILiw jsdt einem 
ao wddno avossadoogs baci eve eleven ni yinw~ -.ylineb 
gn. | gninusel @uoisiinw, gniddyxeve senivib dadd..eniney Yo 
5 se 30 st0807 bas droite yiove soidinini etem ud gnilleoxe 
(fem eieisas dgpetd.:.er9vee otos si ysileor ait | BONO LITCG 
bo sbhaeixe to ger mneod eyswis eved : feed tiedd te evined 
pegbate Yo eniigqtonth avotoldian yd bemret ..ybude bavotlorg 
oan sheen ,ednemele eft ddiw aevloemedd guivytidnebi vi 
Wilvost edi wost gotonsvbhs ».d4e vledd Yo ynomindeg bexiap 
od Bntniadss Yifanitsoalodo to tdgia eft of sagiaagaoo 
ie eqve ydi.daidis edd to yrolg dads .ystilenigiqao [vt - 

At egetQorg », hain to tequed .boftom ni sogia > ,ebbe lwond 
f ysh dose siow fas etom bedstioetqqs yedt as ,dte atedd Yo 
Hse ye .eetdiueed edamidal Jeow 
fon od hosts Ifiw i a ed beebsit Iliw eeibuta avo 

) dedwenos od gainnited edd 2f bna »evitoetdis etom baa - 
“yedd .¢fvotttib bae bedevele ed evyewld Jeom yeds i 
Huoittib ovidositis base eldom yino woy of dnesang wed 
Retin se edd bos Ieidosidadve ed etesd add sant hebivera 
$ wosd od soy. sot YYeeesoen weit et Jl ‘etevodo yYlteqotg od 
: od od educy edt to setete oft bas eetbhude THOY to neltg 
a qeetbddin od emis Iitde et si9edd» npntind aban YW. +.be 
ny PORE Tbe wow oA f rt 


: bb * i] ‘ 


mL ey oY 
ead 


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Ae 


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17 
BOOK I,; PREPARATORY STUDIES. 
Introduction to the Course in Theory. of, Architecturse.: 
CHAPTER tt; - PRELIMINARY. INSTRUCTION,» : 
SUMMARY, --Necessity of preliminary studies.«= Generali 
instruction.; «--Scientific studies;. mathematics; descriptive 
seometry.i «-Application to architecture,: --Tracing shadows,: 
--Ideas of perspective,: -—Drawing and modeling. 

Young man, the time has come to choose a profession, and 
you have chosen architecture.: That. is well,: for if that art. 
be difficult among others, it. is at. least. very beautiful and 
is particularly the useful and creative art;. likewise more 
than any other, the art. of long studies, manifold knowledge 
and serious thought.) 

Yet. you are impatient. and enthusiastic, I. trust;. you have. 
admired our cathedrals,: chateaus,: court houses and city hallse 
and after. tomorrow in your. turn,: you will dream of composing 

marvellous edifices,: of placing on paper the plans of monu- 
ments, that. will be symphonies of stone and marble.: 

Gently.; --Only in novels aro found spontaneous outbursts. 
of genius,: that. divines everything without. learning anything,: 
excelling by mere intuition every effort and result of exe 
perience.; The reality is more severe.; Great artists,: men. of 
genius at. their head,: have always been men of extended and 
profound study,: formed by rigorous discipline of mind,: patient- 
ly identifying themselves with the elements,. means and ace 
quired patrimony of their art,: advancing from the faculty of 
comparison to the right of choice, finally attaining to power- 
ful originality, that glory of the artist,: by superiority of 
knowledge,: rigor. in method, temper of mind,: progress in love 
of their art,: as they appreciated more and more each day its 
most intimate beauties, 

Your studies will indeed be lengthy,: they will also be more 
and more attractive,: and if the beginning be somewhat, dry,:« and 
if they must blways be elevated and difficult,: they will la- 
ter. present, to you only noble and attractive difficulties.«- 
provided that the basis be substantial and the starting point, 
be properly chosen.; It is then necessary for you to know the 
plan of your studies and the stages of the route to be travel- 
ed.; If frightened, there is still time to withdraw; if you 


st 
eved {ftw woy bus evoioenes od ILiw siolie auo0y. ere vaereg 
Reoeedl. 10% iis edd yd bevieeet snomyotne edd bodixem vi lv tas 
-_ ce ‘~etewollot [wtddist 
es a gsicsgsotuoss (andtiite ne eeiluper Jeri? soegidoxs eff 
inf Giupe bos egegzed eid od iltw eidd jeapdoedidors sey Jon 
. %0 foodoes ni eeibuse [sneneg ascy wt Ifew onob evad soY 
sded edd ifh :.e0ind agadieg »,.8.A ne exe voy yenuese Is .yme 
‘MOY tessl conte voy evies ylsioetib seibude yrsissii vot. red 
ayous eved yedd ti beebni ywaxb ea iiew ee sditiw od ever [iin 
ee est quoy pintdd of bentesl eved voy bata aey be 
) *ymedeye déiw sone. .etivset dtiw beet nego soy .bessvele st 
_ ‘@eeidgor xo xobeisq s to déuad odd nigdseces bre toe ster 
“Bniddon :,dneioiteh eeof 1 erom od elesd Yissizg eidd Tl eva 
=o IH0¥ lo exsidiso es exnane ileeswoy deum voy duds geo! ef 
dts au0y to sebi datd yf{ioeiottice « eved vlad. .eonebi lied 
| at elfien10) to ybégetd s Yo gatbeet etd dads boedeteban o@ 
Bow ie ae tedoedidows edd tot ¢itovg dnoddéiv don 
nis p mo Yldiaiy etom bas yiioes ib er] sovod eoonetion ad 
jax gia, bos Sigel e¢ eno modenooe aeibsda oftitneio’ -erioed 
-o08 SoHE Yo eonewper lov yilvost edd qoleveb.,2Kfooases at 
Secenetses bata e to eotieausys onse odd ore bodian seo 
24 - moo bas entmexe ot Iftw od? edsor9 .ylivev bee esvia 
to) fidenoe jon sno of Sninoaser to ytivost edd beineb Lao 
| Wtagseoen od Iliw senefoe ..ylianisosyze coal atsioindemoed 
Lar eek fooee eyenis si tisg edi ;xeetss bos eetbode wow ei 
oi )) ydinnegal oidaiiae » coisjantpani HOY evih don IfLiw st 
bouieks siveqdi ¢ud nso woy Ji suodtin dud sodead lon «nots 
ie anve: ton ,anefiqeonos zH0y exsifest) seitifsesp eeedt ex 
é eee ibovg to wel ewnotreqmi na yd eonia :.yidgvoreds medd 
B Benoced etndoedidosre as0 et! neaud Sninreonoo Ile 
16 Woy seelau bmided oiswes [liw soy .oitidnetoe ston | 
- .jaet0zee0ebeag ao nad? yeatw ers odws,ow aadd — 
mitin & es yeldiasog es te? es nsioiismeridem « 98 
| qerden ts urednome Le bos yidemes) ,oidemddice entinp 
temisg tis iwoy 10% .eldsenequthai ylleisegee ed Lliw_ 
‘i ow di bua ,shifoe 10 esostivz Leoitdemoes Yo edsexd 
oeeden eroted eiutoecisors to ybudea ed? iqwedtea o¢ 
ivisas »,.Yisemonozine nisel cale biweda woY -.eonetoe 
c g Yh baw ecidade » <fesiseb bnooeae edd to sevine yties 
ies alu eeoneior yettel on® ‘enivolso yrs snemete 


18 
persevere, your effort will be conscious and you will have 
manfully merited the enjoyment reserved by the art for. its 
faithful followers,’ 

The architect. first. requires preliminary knowledge,: that. is 
not yet architecture; - this will be his baggage and equipment,: 
You have done well in your general studies in school or. acade 
emy,: I. assume;. you are an A.B.,: perhaps. twice.; All the bete 
ter,. for literary studies directly serve you,: since later you 
will have to. write as well as draw;. indeed if they have arouse - 
ed your. mind,: you have learned to think; your. intelligence 
is elevated,: you.can read with results,: reson with system,: 
reflect, and ascertain the truth of a paradox or sophism.: 

Even if this primary basis be more or less deficient,: nothing 
“i's lost,: but. you must. yourself ensure the culture of your in@ 
telligence.; Only have a sufficiently high idea of your art,: 
to understand that the reading of a tragedy of Corneille is 
not. without profit: for. the architect. 

fhe sciences touch more directly and more visibly on arshi- 
tecture,.: Scientific studies accustom one to logic and rigor. 
in reasoning,: develop the faculty of sequence of ideas,: sug- 
gest, method, are the sane gymnastics of a mind desirous to an= 
alyze and verify, create the will to examine and control.: Pas- 
cal denied the faculty of reasoning to. one not something of a 
geometrician. Also practically,: science will be necessary | 
in your studies and career; its part is always secondary,: for 
it will not give you imagination,: artistic ingenuity,: inven- 
tion,: nor taste; but. without it you. can but imperfectly val- 
ue these qualities,: realize your conceptions, nor even study 
them thoroughly.; Since by an imperious law of progress in 
all concerning human life,: our architecture becomes each day 
more scientific,: you. will remain behimd unless you are wiser 
than we,: who are wiser. than our. ppedecessors,.: 

Be a mathematician as far as possible; as a minimum you re- 
quire arithmetic, geometry and elementary algebra; geometry 
will be especially indispensable, for your art primarily 
treats of geometrical surfaces or solids,: and it would be rash 
to attempt the study of architecture before possessing that. 
science.; You should also learn trigonometry,: analytic geom- 
etry(curves of the second degree),: statics, and if possible, 
elementary calculus. The latter sciences will not. be indis- 


er 

#62 6d Yaw base setbudea anoy Yo aninaiged eid de oldsansg 
O71 wyns bentsel od nso dads Ils conta teY .sedteal ILid bevaes 
“eGiope Isoijanedianm snoy Ile gavit ja edefqmoo of toed ai. si 
«bute siston0e yiisitasiedue edd diiw isilime? eono 10% +. dnem 
10 tostideads danisbe e1om Iedex iliw voy ,eiudeedidows 2 eel 
eee ei owen . esdidsmediam to sonesee etd 
igimedd Yo asebi exivpos bas ecoieydq Laxneneg yhude ose sof 
duoddiw ,eldizeoq medd Jo dzom edd nised .e1edwyns ¥1 
iq tsénémebaut .eeibods aedic yd bebnsmeb emis dowm oot gat 
Woy bose >, dneveerq end vo? eottive {fiw ews! tsexg bos eelgio 
‘ddiw beioennoo ylioetib erom aeidtisioegs odd ybude sedel fin 
Ota : | adts iHoY 
at beatbode od as! leknkctee e ef ytdemoes evidqiieseb sud 

) yileseney gon ei di vlodenvtarotal -.notdest dgvoteds seom 
ie csasahsavce deun oY “HOY SOt VIIeiad ood yllenen »,¢dguad 
3 @ideesd boos s Yo eonsbins old ddiw di thade of YieasHoy 
- Bee csensce eno to sincittib ylfse1 Jon ei eoneioe. eid 
etcet to bodes es yletom yilsudos at ti yyudemoe2 yisinen 
> entt es bas *,ifide levnem esonenmoo fi ddiw dud yaoide 
Penrith eid Yo nolinoexe Jooelieq odd elsupe gnidton aot 
17 aeep, Sey Fey es | “Yidemoes evidqirosed 
ODS Se esaticdiess voy gniddyteve Jadd Ilew basdatebal 
UES Yxev nedio' Wrasence® evidcineesb od Ifiw enoldoes bas 
ylno et eoneto eveidd vintsiaed wtiverttib ediup eomidenoe 
fee es werb: yltenr0} esoedinorws dserd edd hoe > blo yiudneo 
“Yer ofyemedeys: eid yino bedoe! yedd JeY .yledersoos es has 
test + bus ,fedd ydibeyolome ebodisem Isoitigqme edt of 
od {aisesl gfed eidd mevik. ei scy of yredsexk yYloo esw 
| aD ol ea ybude yino don bas yderedd Jiiierg 
afi dctsonme, 


7" F 


if 


Bahnce T eeeadbtaes adi ‘it seioiexe Sivode voy » stots 
rb qesst0o edd gatiem yledeino9s jvosdiw meldorg 
dood sow ai mergsibiedd Io esedé woxl Qoivellib edab ddiw 
Yasewooh. evidqinoesb Yo nudis Isnceteq a exam andi pol - 
eeioe aqibns edsiso9s lo dided ed’ <——oe emis emee oft ds 
a 7O Foehe wid. Oy: ~ehatwedh 
oe obigge Lerusoosiders edd axduee od tfeervoy motenood 
ees observed sedsens yisonosg evisciresed .ybode edd Yo | 
0 ine atidt meacediy: bre gencd ,etebni {yo nonedg» coats ) 


wy : by ele 
Bes i "rey me siiig e 
er Hi ae enn «3 S meee Oy ee 


19 

pensable at the beginning of your studies and may be ree 
served till later.; Yet, since all that can be learned anywhere, 
it is best to complete at first. all your. mathematical equip- 
ment, for once familiar. with the substantially conerete stud~ 
ies 6f architecturs,: you will rebel more against. abstraction-~ 
the essence of mathematics.: 

You can study general physics and acquire ideas of chemiste 
ry anywhere.: Learn the most of them possible,: without. spend= 


ding’ toe much time demanded by other studies,: Fundamental prin- 


“Giples and great. laws will suffice for the present,: and you 
will later study the specialties more directly connected with 
your art. 

But descriptive geometry is a science to be studied in the 
most thorough fashion.: Unfortunately it is not generally 
taught, usually too. briefly for you.; You must count much on 
yourself to. study it: with the guidance of a good treatise,: 
This science is not really difficult for one possessing ele- 
mentary geometry; it is actually merely a method of represent- 
ation; but. with it. commences manual skill,: and as line draws. 
ing nothing equals the perfect. execution of the diagrams of 
descriptive sgeometry.: 

Understand well that; everything you draw,: plans, facades © 
and: sections will be descriptive geometry,: often very simple,: 
sometimes quite difficult.; Certainly this s cience is only a 
century old,: and the great architects formerly drew as well 
and as accurately.: Yet they lacked only the systemayic key 
to the empirical methods employed by them,. and their merit 
was only greater; to you is given this help lacking to then,: 
profit thereby and not. only study descriptive geometry,: but 
practice it.: 

It is indeed a practical science,: and while learning the 
theory,: you should exercise in its application.: Study no 
problem without. accurately making the corresponding diagram 
with data differing from these of the diagram in your book.: 
You thus make a personal album of descriptive geometry, and 
at the same time acquire the habit of accurate and precise 
drawins,: : 

Accustom yourself to seize the architectural applications 
of the study. Descriptive geometry treats theoretically of 
lines,: planes,: cylinders,: cones and spheres; it is for you to 


PY Os 
| -©<yonslq Yo snotsoostedat exe etooir no eudl .eelquexe bai? 
eernt edd at eseiqg oopif{do as yd maitq @ Io notioseeretat edd 
| )@diede bas eslvev no ticot s vd geo yennido 3 to naotsoes 
7 ne exeidorg ascdivey of eldasilage eelomexe bavet e1s anny loo 
“Yo seoslise ieveceib woy jectsdqs has eenoo . ,erebailyo 
Th) ci neve avd ode) » eaamntoo to elaiiyso base soved no noid 
68 tehn0f on e1sdosdidors eee of Ssonemmoo Efiw soy: adlew 
“tot ydilids emoe déiiw ybaotlis dud: resool eaelidguodé 
wie stdd 10% yYiteseoen odT :.ene0em adi bos ednemelo ati gai 
ntad ‘aged asd sisey Iesevee vot Jadi o8 ,besingooe: mood ead 
“Ro metgsth s e24A ontl Yo focdee edd of noleaémbe 102 bardup 
 Ohleegeepapnaeienae Yo seidseticga se ee enotiootorg Laantoedtidove 
i ‘e¥Idemoss 
dala Din divide aneldotq no tlesivey eaioiexe ylreluoidred 
Dwi Stod base sefdion total sao wey doidw duodtiws ewobada %o 
- © au0y to teifes end bas akeesontend Yo etoette edt sebse87 
pies » ee ‘~endidizog 
y Latoo ge ‘eds Yo ybude edd won studsmerg es iebianes I jue 
‘ebay begitqmoe yrsemoes eviddixoseb Yo suoidacil, 
! 961 66 edibdde esedd s9t~~ pyidueqiso bas gaidiuoencte 
 neeeneog d6y doa of voy tadd>,esnioecinowa to ssebi emca 
es, Yo eélgfontig deié? omoe ntaél .sidiesoq YI 
fiese et eviisegeieg ,felieed bie dey dnegay ton at ais? 
; YTsemoed evidginoseb to ekbelwons divovedé « diiw benvsel 
* ian eiditewog ylors fon ai st deY ;ami02 Leitndoedidois Yo 
ig ©). Nevideeqeteq Yo esebi devi? odd Jnontiv agte 
edb ie'a 2ex16setd eiuseredif{ to gox od dsoge yeds sod 
Te cihissecs evet tud.»,eeedd segrot gon ob I j}.tniwarh ba8 
é 1 selbuse avoy to etevee J8om ‘eos woy od dexrit edisos 
| btswet s > erence oideitas of Sfgi1 odd dadd wond oF yoy 
apa ats: ‘abedisem od teum dadd 
I Liw oy isdd).bniwerb Yo bise ed of ai gntdé eno Jud 
bee } suicinee # af Sniwasb ybut? snauadisyb 6 Bo doum ooF od 
ped dnd) sedodedwe gnteselq eden of son ,notdast sreves 
he ee wons of atael :entfino as bre mot « etem yletss. 
oust 2 ed jyed yer df sevedadw,.¢i sebnes yilditddist of bas 
exb Yo ybhude edd yin -.exoqqne soy asi’ 18184) wemedterh 
tsoifeb yLemersxe ezodd ,2nottreqorg evieoreg uoy edsm {Liw 
ine bevieoreg ets dey bas eesssgmoc edd yteb dani sebsdea 
bas notisnthent .ystilidtet soy evita [fiw tf yexeo 


Swe 


ho ee 
‘as 


20. 
find examples.: Thus on roofs are intersections of planes;. 
the intersection of a prism by an oblique plane is the inter 
section of a chimney cap by a roof; on vaults: and shafts of 
columns are found examples applicable to various problems on 
cylinders, cones and spheres; you discover. surfaces of revolue 
tion on bases and capitals of columns,: etc.: Thus even in your 
walks, you will commence to see architecture,: no longer as a 
thoughtless looker,: but already with some ability for analyz- 
ing its elements and its means,; The necessity for this study 
has been recognized, so that for. several years has. been ree 
quired for. admission to the School of Fine Arts a diagram of 
architectural projections as an application of descriptive 
seometry.: 

Particularly exercise yourself on problems showing the trace 
of shadows,: without. which you. can later neither study nor 
render the effects of projections and the relief of your. come 
positions.: 

But, I consider as premature now the study of the special ape 
plications of descriptive geometry comprised under stereotomy~=~ 
stonecutting and carpentry; --for these studies are required 
some ideas of architecture, that. you do not, yet possess.’ 

If possible, learn some férst principles of perspective.: 
This is not urgent. yet, and besides,: perspective is easily 
learned with a thorough knowledge of descriptive geometry and 
of architectural forms; Yet. it is not, truly possible to de= 
sign without the first ideas of perspective,} 

But they speak to you of literature,: history, sciences=~- 
and drawing.; I. do not forget these, but have desired to dew 
scribe first. to you the most. severe of your studies, wishing 
you to know that the right to artistic studies is a reward, 
that. must be merited.: 

But one thing is to be said of drawing, that you will never 
be too much off a draftsman. Study drawing in a serious and 
severe fashion,: not to make pleasing sketches,: but. to accu- 
rately make a form and an outline; learn to know your model 
and to faithfally render. it,: whatever. it may be;. be a logal 
draftsman, rarer than you. suppose. Only the study of drawing 
will make you perceive propoertions,: those extremely delicate 
shades that defy the compasses and yet are perceived by the 
eye; it will give you fertility,: imagination and artistic 


2 
=, 


wir is 
Ipsiitds ¢som odd se2 syswis ew Jedd ,ou1d o8 at atndT .détleow 
Dbewobne deom .sontiseb efidae? saom edd emooed nesedtath 
| etnetis od gniviessos 103 diod ,viinonegut bas soidenizemt 
 .@idd bas ..obsost Isinomento os gaidostorg 10% base mela g Yo 
‘beiwarb bas bedgoennoo ats aknids {Ie dre ni a0ot.,08 ed bisods 
Meense 6, ) ‘eed%e edt {le lo onode steni09 odd ei 
09h 8 ilew esuoexe 10 Ifew ersiostisore wate seven [Liw ol 
it nemedte1S « vidaeinitiwe oss voy eeelnu ,eniwerb laoiadens 
1 Ye ‘VTeidd to Tootg erteeb voy of -.bxow edd Yo oanee Laven edd 
Om fsspioadicois sense eid eivasom adoeiidors ows dedi seuzed 
; : oved dtod .sersiqgives Jvoddinw bas, lasindesoes yletg ovis. 
(eno dud .2edsiexe bos edusmeisessa siedé ni yortu9098, emee edt 
emt0i edd yd gnivsab oft :.Jom ei soddo add bas oamedisad s at 
_ ef3 Yo aoitsinosetoe: @ ee doeric®s bae [widdilet ed {[Ltw te 
¥ edi seddiem xebnex ILiw bnoose edd Jo sadd elidw ,lebom 
’ pies Hi tot edi neve 100 sedo8 
uibet Lobos to dadd yd bedelqnoo st aninsrh lo ybude edT 
; edd Joa unilebom to gniweth nt «ot ;2alwasbh Yo miot sedio 
a {elioetsoo baivieado Yo yiineos? efid eye edd dod benlerd ef 
j edo, 20. eonsisegos edd vez od woy eedosed gninaid elidw ylno 
mom dus ¥dilses ifedd evieedo od woy sotoeed gnilebom -.asoet 
Beidy ts ~ertdoedidess Io sznee edd aot voy eeisgeto yitoetib 
| dseqe [ftw 1 .gniwerh erwdoesidors, 10 [seitdemosy 10% 2A 
ee | ‘tedal gt to 
yeetbuse tae Yo nelo sft To ysedidne ef ds ei dowd 
at soidontdeni ysshnooee jadi eredwyne ehea od vas Jedd 
fe don ot tedded af st. bas ,.viseasoonnn at fLoodos [aiocegeA 
xd heteqeta ifew Liiny erusoedidore to ybuse edi tomes 
vee efi soi ybsex baim ett AYiw med .scibode yieniailerg 
pdt yilaupe od {Liw voy .seibusa redsl avey gnideluzer bo 
) Siem Ifiw bus .zebis citidneios bas oijaitss siedd ai bedas 
a ion seol od. edided bad on oved Iliw ucy 402 :,e20exg0%q bigey | 
ed. Bhee® ddbisade boidowsa jiegaol od efainniged evidoe led 
eC p db anil Aaanee a af gatwatinos base Jnatog golisede 
) a ee abrswr0t dorem od woy 107 


21 
wealth. This is so true, that we always see the most skilfal 
draftsman become the most fertile designer,: most endowed with 
imagination and ingenuity,: both for conceiving the arrangement 
of a plan and for projecting an ornamental facade, and this 
should be so,: for in art all things are connected and drawing 
is the corner stone of all the arts.: 

You will never draw architecture well or. executes well a geo 
metrical drawing,: unless you are sufficiently a draftsman in 
the usual sense of the word. Do you desire proof of this? 
Assume that two architects measure the same architectural mo- 
tive,: purely geometrical and without, sculptures. Both have 
the same accuracy in their measurements and sketches,: but one 
is a draftsman and the other is not.: The drawing by the forme 
er will be faithful and correct: as a representation of the 
model,: while that of the second will render neither its char- 
acter. nor even its forn.: 

The study of drawing is completed by that. of modeling,: an- 
other. form of drawing; for in drawing or modeling not, the hand 
is trained but the. eye,: the faculty of observing correctly;- 
only while drawing teaches you to see the appearance of obe 
jects,: modeling teaches you to observe their reality,: and more 
directly prepares you for the sense of architecture.: | 

As for geometrical or architectural drawins,: I. will speak 
of it later.: 

Such is the entirety of the plan of preliminary studies,: 
that can be made anywhere that. secondary instruction is given.: 
Aspecial school is unnecessary,: and it is better to not. ate 
tempt the study of architecture until well prepared by these 
preliminary. studies. Then wifh the mind ready for the meth- 
od regulating your later. studies, you will be equally inter 
ested in their artistic and scientific sides,: and will make 
rapid progress,: for you will have no bad habits to lose,: nor. 
defective beginnings to forget; marching straight, from the 
starting point and continuing in a straight line,: it suffices 
for you to march forward.: 


Ss 
| SGSU HAIGHT QUA STHAMURTSKHI BMIWARG © ARTIAHD 
wweneidectyue {eottosiIa~ ,edinemnutsent gntdaohe~ -.YHAMMUZ 
3 — yeetgosinzt ,ersupe~T»,bisod to eee -.seqsq baiwerd 
eid ‘eenesw to eaitoesd+= -.dni esonidQew ~eontd~~ -.ort9 
BY). ‘sdpemgqinpe avoy o¢ Bntdseler derit ds eaebtow soe 
f teqsq elgse bhusig 10 ,ebts0d gniwerh ows ontinper [fiw voY 
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| d eeedT (.eani &.82 x BL. JeLres bosi2 “seitenp « eves oale 
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e148 YIno ebse odd da edseto hoow baed dite ehaeod ;boor Ji}os 
Sot mle door esa shoow deed edf .edsrs0cs Yléneioitiaa Jon 
 gdond on od bluods exedT .feasq edd sol aelgog bas emart sid 
_— efiasg ddgiasida evad bloode doisws.hoow edd goings of 
| onelg yluad base bedsit 
V2 -,eeengash bee ove etosbioos’mor1d ebte0d, woy sosdor® 
SStexte Jon cis eotbs edd aedw bas .modd atew diate ésds gaidd 
ee oetiazeg evead tehnol on Iftw woy ao ,bendd medi eved 
2) one ‘et hotweth 
_meatsane bue efgse bausxiy Ofsd : ,elose heiduns eved {fiw pol 
Sas sists édgtette déviw hoowtseg to versupe~T. efhee board 
om od eveupe-T s\ een seven bos eelauinat biovA j.evsdxed wit 
sige niaesiatey atsmet dave ebeld eff .vegeq Ito juo 10 
a ae ‘~.wtoin vo setoton duoddtiw 
fete pastas: boo® .seexzeb Cf bas O08 Je eeldasiad owl 
Ditiddibeses od binode hoow .ecinode 10 teddux btad .,boow Yo 
‘ens duods «nidd oot od gon Janm yedT -.20etsepe~T odd sot, 
estate ses Jdeged ee lansing eff ,ersnpeef edt to sbsid edd 28 
Le ‘@i snemqtupe eid? .(f£ .2f%) hemes? ers yosasooe ated 
itoeb S efsoe boowxod # bas eluzx ertem antbiot « yd bedelg 
"ait notsivic «eerdomiffin ni bedeubatz .(,ent @8.6) goof esr 
i eo “emoselduets bas aeeelesn ai seriemiilin tied 
eld deotdw ot .meeodo [lew ed bilwode etehivib Yo sesso sit 
i... onigelil « jeel ednemursani hook tot, bieq od deum eotag 
ei sis diiw tieeroy sedauone You od .yese siow w00y exten 
if fs .deed ef esso Jotoog edd tot+,xod emozeldnois bae yveed 
a | ‘wG.S.RIT) .eldedteg bas 
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fol einiog beiniot dtiw eelorio roi arehivid~~ ,ose ..nnibivib 
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CHAPTER 2,; DRAWING INSTRUMENTS ABD THEIR USE.. 

SUMMARY,: --Working instruments.; «Practical sugsestions.-= 
Drawing paper.: --Use of board,: T-square, triangles,: dividers 
etc. --Lines.: --Chinese ink.: --Practice of washes; 

Some words at first relating to your. equipment.: 

You will require two drawing boards,for. grand eagle paper 
(36 X 25. ins.:)and a half grand eagle (25. X 18 ins.).: You may 
also have a querter grand eagle( 18 =x 12,5 ins.:).: These boards 
should be paneled,: i.e.,: with frame of hard wood and panel of 
soft. wood; boards with hard wood cleats at the ends. only are 
not sufficiently accurate,; The best. woods are rock elm for. 
the frame and poplar for the panel. There should be no knots 
to spring the wood,: which should have straight grain,: be well 
fitted and truly plane.: 

Protect your boards. from accidents,: sun and dampness,: every= 
thing that. might. warp them,: and when the edges are not straight, 
have them trued,: or. you will no longer have parallels in your. 
drawing s.° 

You. will have grand eagle,: half grand eagle and quarter. 
grand eagle Tesquares of pearwood with straight grain and uri- 
form texture,. Avoid injuries and never use a Tesquare to glue 
or cub. off paper. The blade must remain perfectly straight 
without notches or nicks.} 

Two triangles at 30: and 45 degrees. Good triangles are now 
of wood, hard rubber or ebonite;: wood should be selected as 
for the Tesquares.: They must not be too thin, about the same 
as the blade of the Tesquare,. The triangles best retaining 
their accuracy are framed.: (Fig. 1),.: This equipment is con= 
pleted by a folding metre rule and a boxwood scale 2 decimete- 
res long (6.55. ins.’),: graduated in millimetres.: Division in 
half millimetres is useless and troublesome.: 

The case of dividers should be well chosen,: for which the 
price must be paid,: for good instruments last. a lifetime and 
make your work easy.’ Do not encumber yourself with a large,: 
heavy and troublesome box, for. the pocket case is best, Light 
and portable,: (Fig.2.:).: 

You find therein dividers with plain points for messuring,: 
dividing,: eto. --Dividers for circles with jointed points for 
drawing circles,’ -~Pen and pencil points fitting these dici- 


i. 
. a 


7 eg 
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w= eeheq builos owle= .avebivih egiel efd vot vad nolenodx® 
 te800L ood TO ddREd CGF Fon ,ebeed t8biwtb dnigertbs tot yoX 
| Wolitwi Isdom ec¢iiw to eassd oi ebsm ore ednsaeitent esenT 
‘book ylisupe ors 
tat geiwolls seven ,eineautsent avoy Yo e160 teqgorg edeT 
ge . ‘.aneq edt al yh 
} fidftdw ,elieneg bse! +6 BKOyeTO | been ed of ete eLtionsd 
 en)eds doitiw to:,a'tedel elgusxe tot .viilaup book Yo od of 
+b bred tenjes << 1,d9028. © i:$toe yrev. yto~ietedasa tH08t ets 
Beech eyewls .s2s0 edt of Qntbhrooos batd sediis eet .brad yrev 
 daeileoxe ei ®.0 cunt; s19408g 61d Yaieseto Jon bue ylidstl 
» bas 'S “so yeonil bedimil eetoeng ytev sexs eft aniwerh s0t 
g e2, de: shasd eert nt gnidotede 101 tedéis1 exe 2.0% 
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) +,dew nedw adniog book aninisisey -,eaie mutbem Yo eefanrd ows 
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t Sigesle dtoe zemls diuom ;eltoneq ex exie eomae to eroblod 
Baie | meagnoge Jioa 6 hans :,batdodstoe to yerth brad Jon .r]8ed 
08 ewld neieani9 to bas eninzso Yo adetias,esrofoe 10% 
— on eeivhs ylanorte I gud ‘.natdoes at edasg tnit of 
seabed Snidush wod evetied Jonnso woY .tneze ts te avetos 
a @1b s af desew od wod wond don seob eno aedw’ edided bed 
a - eae smixg edt to notdietupos ed¢ adnevetg bre . 
8 pag ‘~teifey bas exentee!s 
Her edwiwexb 10% .yreeessen e718 seqsq to sitoe Isteved 
ke ei secsq eliud exo1 10 wolfey ):,ode ,eedodede » fioneg ni 
ed 10 dowm ood beddut ed gon daun dud>,.csefo yrey bae tnol 
Gf ditw esieltedni doidw.reqsq beddix ean revel .s%0e ood 
* geq nemded® ceifaod’ ylno at er]8edd .,esdesw 104 -.ehotwarh 
phate ne» gnidotjete roF .eotrq dhid esi ret dgenxe snes ieoxe 
eet seth sia 1egeq ntosad v8t. stegqsg elLiasbssp 10 el ind 
ASE ‘.ftagb mov? bedoedore baa ytb te8e9qeo.. 
bai of ih bakens 608 eetiopes inenqiups etdt to ean aft 
ia = “ve  «,8ntnaataed edd sort aedidsd boos 
gole odd bus elded tniwerh eft sddied tuoy o¢ tewtbe devit 
vo gntbnsd Biovs ,tntbesde a0 bedsor teddedW .bas0d efd Yo 
 dileed (}d perenne deedo edd Io nolesergeb ylisioeqee has 


93 
ders.; --Spring dividers for drawing very small circles,’ == 
Extension bar for the large dividers.; --Two ruling pens-j <= 
Key for adjusting divider heads,: not too tight or too loose.) 

These instruments are made in brass or white metal,: which 
are equally good.: 

fake proper. care of your. instruments, never allowing ink to 
dry in the pens.’ 

Pencils are to be used, crayons or lead pencils, which are 
to be of good quality, for example Faber's,: of which there 
are four numbers:<<1,: very soft; 2,: soft, 3,: rather hard; - 4,: 
very hard. Use either kind according to the case,: always , 
lightly and not creasing the paper.; Thus No.4 is excellent. 
for drawing the axes,: very precise limited lines; No. 2 and 
No.i are rather for sketching in free hand.* 

You will have some porcelain cups,: a stick of Chinese ink,« 
that. to be good must be hard,: shining,: black or slightly red= 
dish and not blueish,: producing neither. grains nor. sediment; 
two brushes of medium size,: retaining good points when wet, : 
set. in the ends of a single handle;. drawing pens with light 
holders of same size as pencils; mouth glue;- soft elaséic rube 
ber,: not hard gray or scratching,: and a soft sponge.: 

For colors, stisks of carmine and of Prussian blue suffice 
to tint parts in section. But I. strongly advise no box of 
colors at. present. You cannot believe how daubing produces 
bad habits,: when one does not know how to. wash in a drawing, 
and prevents the acquisition of the prime qualities of drawing, 
clearness and relief. 

Several sorts of paper are necessary.: For drawings left 
in pencil,: sketches, etc.,: yellow or rose Bulle paper. is exeel: 
lent and very cheap,: but must. not be rubbed too much or. be 
too soft.: Never. use ribbed paper,: which interferes with line 
drawings.: For washes, there is only English Whatman paper,: 
excellent except for its high price, For. sketching, Canson,: 
Bulle or quadrille paper,: for tracing paper. buy dioptric.  Keee 
paper dry and protected from dust. 

The use of this equipment requires some advice for forming 
Sood habits from the beginning. 

First adjust. to your height. the drawing table and the slope 
of the board. Whether seated or standing,. avoid bending over 
and especially depression of the chest. injurious té health, 


o) oes ae =A 


i ag 
edsoileb s 10% .bstelqnoo son ed dtwors Yi yilaloegee 
wih :.dnemeanetss add Jorinoo blucde nsteieydg yLimet edd 
re eno bas ,Ieinostiod ed don bloode breed aniwwsd edt 
ppetiaens. eldesentbA .dt gates ni elfdiesog as elsiil as baed 
“e(E 82%) -.dnelleoxe excteredt ose 
yd. yeenbe best semt0ot.edét Yo esesosit evomex aysawiA 
tadd obsid « yd hevomet ed nso yond ,medd gnidtsoe bne 
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di tow..deede ofd onl of .betab [few ef i stedts ylno 
iw tedew evonet,,gelt nismet ot a2 oe xtosd sedi no ylartot 
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watned yd basot [fle di evi nedT -.¢ow Jon sud bebosgxe bas 
@ edd sedd ».yirsqoxa di anidoderate ..2~elbbia ase t edd ga bata 
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Ifiw aofiwesb as0y bas detodorée rloigss bos ylieqorg 
_ oo t4 GQ 8i goods edd Litas Fish ;.130 ii gntddso wi bemioish 
aye’ oerb yl 
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) odd od 18 [uotbaegteg neq bas I[foneg ,dateg odd goed 
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‘24 
especially if growth be not completed. For. a delicate youth,, 
the family physician should control the arrangement.) Always,: 
the drawing board should not, be horizontal,: and one should 
bend as little as possible in using it. Adjustable trestles 
are therefore excellent.: (Fig.; 3).: 

Always remove traces of the former glued edges; by wetting 
‘ and soaking them,: they can be removed by a blade that scrapes 
and does not, cut,: wash well the board and glue on a new sheett 
only after. it is well dried.; To glue the sheet, wet. it uni- 
formly on the back so as to remain flat,: remove water with a 
sponge or. dry cloth,: so that the sheet. may be uniformly damp 
and expanded but not wet. Then glue it all round by begine~ 
ning at the four middles,: stretching it properly,: then the cor. 
ners and lastly the intermediate paris.: Thus the sheet is 
properly and rapidly. stretched,: and your drawing will not. be 
deformed in cutting it off.; Wait. until the sheet is perfect- 
ly drye: 

The Tesquare serves to draw horizontals and as base for the 
triangle for verticals,: Only use it; with the head moved by 
your. left. hand.; For verticals,: slip the triangle on the Te» 
square, its vertical. side being at, the left,.; Them jhe light, 
must, be in front and a little to the left,.: Top light as very 
bed for architectural drawing.| The square and triangles should 
always be very clean.) Your pencils are finely pointed and 
lightly used,: held as nearly vertical as possible. When it 
lies along the Tesquare or triangle the lines vary and may 
not, be straight.; Remember thet pencil lines are working lines 
to be erased without using the rubber hard to injure the 
paper., If the pencil lines are to be inked, they should be | 
light,: for ink adheres badly to a heavy pencil line.: 

To repoint s pencil when not requiring to be recut,: a very 
fine file or sandpaper is. useful. 

Divider points should rest, lightly .and not, make beles in 
the paper., Keep the leg perpendicular to the paper;: if obli- 
que,: inaccuracy and injury to the paper are produced. Simi- 
larly for the dividers for circles; the joints are bent to 
keep the point,: pencil and pen perpendicular to the drawing. 
Hence dividers without joints in legs are worthless,: 

The ruling pen is used like the pencil, lightly and as vert- 
ical as possible. Pressing too hard on the paper,: it is | 


; eS 
a9 194 edt esolo voy .ogbs odd santsge bisd oof to, beaseto 


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dai Baidtaw diétw ansg 
h ediatteb odd eoubo1g eaeg basd sext bas aatin« oAT 
law noose ftw goY beasts ots eonti Lioneg edd dotdw t93%s 
@ wo went! yosa ,ftoneg add déiw senil Ialtaezae sdé vino 
q@ Qa0idintl of¢ seowded Ant a6 yltoerth shaw gated gaiwsxh 
Ylgqs iLiw asuattets edd Yo sonegilladat add yasati [to 
edt odam dertt o¢ weeloey ak si antwerth dose of bodtew 
gs dat atateze Jt t9ovo 0% bas L[ioneq at gatwath etid 
‘Mamedieth odd perrgety ¥fao: menos yisow bas Isoinadoos 
bie ton ‘steqsq edd §atggow 
fi 7que) aselo eLeakethi a ai bedd#@ 4d daua dat seen idd 
ovis ed daum e1a90 » sala: “quo edd af boixh dat alegs dust 
on ij tj . ‘eHat osentdd to oan edt ad 
Bhewonet ed ;ydesq goa tud dosfd ed daum dat aniward 
ot betevoo ef gro oft Abedanaet! nt ylisteseqes ,.viisbh eeats 
Oo aL yonn.a ‘etasb brow 
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guived. lagtd odd gatqgib aedw dt gatattia biovse ,quo 


mi 

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aoe to did a, dnedxe I[{sas to asdesw 10% 
ae 1 alain a ap a a sani AO. 4 to bseteat beay ed Yen 
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dw deuidis dftw osstise' adit mot? edet sedT .elttea of © 


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eee hatte ulstdgiia emeea bas efidw regm0l on at req 


25. 
creased, or too hard against the edge,: you close the pen un- 
consciously.; The ink must always be fluid in the pen,: frequent~ 
ly renewed,: and the points cleaned with water and a rag. The 
same for the free hand pen.) Never use ruling or sketching 
pens with writing ink. 

The ruling and free hand pens produce the definite drawing,: 
after which the pencil lines are erased. You will soon make 
only the essential lines with the pencil,: many lines on a 
drawing being made directly én ink between the limiting pene 
cil lines; the intelligence of the draftsman will apply this 
method to each drawing; it is useless to first make the en= 
tire drawing in pencil and go over it again in ink,: a purely 
mechanical and weary labor,: only fatiguing the draftsman and 
wearming the papere 

Chinese ink must be rubbed in a strictly clean cup; never 
rub again ink dried in the cup.: Special care must be given 
to the use of Chinese ink.) 

Drawing ink must be black but not. pasty; be renewed several 
times daily, especially in summer; the cup is covered to a= 
void dust. 

Similar care is required for washes. After rubbing in the 
cup ink till sufficiently black,: leave it in the covered cup 
to settle., Then take from its surface with a brush what. is 
necessary for the wash, not disturbing bhe bottom,: diluting 


this in another cup with more or less water. Thus never pass 
over a wash with the ink in the first, cup in which it was 
ground.) When the wash is well mixed with water in the second 
cup, avoid stirring it, when dipping the brush,: having suffic». 
ient. tint. without, reaching the bottom,: where the deposit, from 
even the best ink should never be used for the work.: 

For washes of amall extent, a bit. of noneabsorbent paper 
may be used instead of a Cupe! 

Skill in washes only comes from practice,: yet. some advice 
is useful.; If in spite of every care for clearness, your pa= 
per is no lomger white and seems slightly soiled,: wash it. 
lightly with a very soft. sponge and perfectly clean water,: 
but, very lightly and wetting it, everywhere. Then dry it with a 
sponge as lightly as possible and without rubbing,: which might 
efface ea part.) You gan begin with the wash when the sheet. | 
is no longer wet but, damp,: which will be best for the first, . 


- ne «+ ae oR ee i a ee 
nO ee Pa 


as 


‘ezaw 
’ @ bas>,¥ase yrev at $i dud, gatitiaa amesea ets9 afdt 
“ddoddin bas gait miotinn déivbenistdo ydexedt at dese saersg 
‘at gutbede daoit bos json to misdo edt aeouborg dotdw \.2edoga 
a 0 te teiloes 
- d-bettupos {{tde [eaoateqiasatigqsooa dawitd edd Yo sau adT 
Jexe oJ oved voy otedw dow atemet aysvis Saum f10w toy yo8K 
at yltelsgetit bas yldotup ood actib tedd dasw a Jt baed 
tlomt ylidagtfe ed teum brs0od ed? .xendized odd tot tegaeh 
yotqod ed od at doidw) dase odd gateesq tot aotdéoorth add at 
ik? @ te dont S\E to 8\E awob tt gntyriso .azzor0s sdgiarte 
“a iid dautd edf -,aefont oetdd to owd foad antonommoo tad 
ee ns daw edd ce3 [fiw woy bas ,e2entis Lletevesa etedwyieve ze 
| bas “tow asoy of Lelleiaq Satgoed ,god odd aiott yllachara 
“edd bas )ybatded slidil a asbia odd eveod wit no gnimtsg 
‘ # 36 ausetsa Ateh gatbiovs ,elbbim add biswod aut L[itw 
. ui at rege ads sens begasq oa od daya dasw edi :,tetad al 
en, a batiow Yfatotiag bas yidguor 
7 x1 10 ‘edidw of fos id mort teddedw  ,sedasw beissbars 10% 
ie 1 on: ,asoudtdnoo aoltssbetg etds odem  tosid of otédw 
_ gitess »,sonsvbe dosé is doafd to tetaw Qatbbs yd dasw edi 
th ytev et st] ;.beaotétogo1g [low ota anottibbs saedd asd? 
a ‘ILkee teqsq fo desw boteubs1a [few s diiw besooge of tno 
= @fasd s es eviea oF fdaaw dalt s eaaq of tetted doum jodtidw 
ea | . etait beteubse13 ed’ 
tetism A-.basd Yo asenddyil gseta eertvper dewsd eff | 
1a don Bloods maze tdgta edt .attdsed hook to coals bas sidsd 
EE add wsatweth eid ao deet ti Bilwode t0OM ,.ybod edd t10q 
aq edd d#iw tosinoo at ef saole basi gdgia edd to asg0tt 
che .dmodd yd {[foseq s oXil ylisen bled at dewiad ent 
‘Yletom bue ednomevom adi at eet? od hluoda .,ategatt ofh 
iad evawih ‘eybod eft détw ton bns tntog odd dtiw teqeg odd 
‘2 svomer: ,dosm oof Tt ,desw edt to aaidiinssy [supe gu 
275 deagid edd y1h> .daew edt Yo bae oft gatdoset asdw bas 
yi ent biased oft oveed .teqsg antdsoid ot tf aaitdowot vd yl. 
et dasw baoose s tI .y15 toa at teqgsq odd olidw beanile 
) tegaol on ai dt Jedd atadteo ed .Jjatit edd tevo beaasg 
eet ‘staol ed [fiw [fe te 
vo Ulsviaseooua eedeas to tedmua ettsl s Rataesg blovA 
fixd bewollod emooed [fiw teqsq odd to .s98f¢ eusa odd 


(ips 


hs 


bog 


720 


w ,, J tae i , “ie . 
- di ie 8 t a. 5 
” i) 2355.08, or 


26 
washe) 

This care seems trifling,: but it. is very easy,: and a trans- 
parent wash is thereby obtainedwith uniform tint, and without. 
spots,: which produces the charm of neat and fresh shading in 
relief.) 

The use of the brush comprises personal skill acquired by 
use; your work must always remain wet. where you have to exe 
tend it; @ wash that dries too quickly and irregularly is the 
danger for the begibner.: The board must be slightly inclined 
in the direction for passing the wash,: which is to be kept 
streight across, carrying it. down 3/8 or 3/4 inch at a tine,: 
but commencing back two or three inches,; The brush thus pass- 
es everywhere several times,: and you will see the wash dry 
gradually from the top, keeping parallel to your work and not 
gaining on it,; Leave the sides a little behind,: and the wash 
will run toward the middle,: avoiding dark streaks at the edges. 

In brief,: the wash must be so passed that the paper is tho» 
roughly and uniformly wetted.: 

For graduated washes, whether from black to white or per 
whote to black,: make this éraduation continuous, modifying 
the wash by adding water or black at each advance,: seeing 
that. these additions are well proportioned.; It is very diffi- 
cult to succeed with a well graduated wash on paper still 
white;. much better to pass a flat wash to serve as a basis for 
the graduated tint. 

The brush requires great lightness of hand. A matter of 
habit and also of good habits. The right. arm should not sup- 
port the body,: nor should it. rest. on the drawing; the little 
finger of the right hand alone is in contact with the paper. 
The brush is held nearly like a pencil by thumb,: fore and mid- 
dle fingers,: should be free in its movements and merely touch 
the paper with the point and not with its body. Always take 
up equal quantities of the wash, if too much,: remove this,: 
and when reaching the end of the wash,: dry the brush graduale 
ly by touching it to blotting paper. Leave the board ine 
clined while the paper is not dry.: If a second wash is to be 
passed over the first,: be certain that it is no longer. damp, 
or all will be lost, 

Avoid passing a large number of washes successively over 
the seme place, or the paper will become hollowed by the 


| ¥s 

. e8d4aq bedosette bas betas edt Yo acteass 
(yeteorse evoget Sns aedeaw A18b oot nettoa yom egacge od? 
a joaw ',4atgno0ca sed¥ *.bsesde ed fon daum yhomet etd’ tad 
 ¥teov- ed dana istew odd yylinatisg bas ylddyil yr0ev .sadew 
| meqaq edt to dee1 edd yilet anitsaw yd sosemmos baa .(xeelo 
— et ognoga wdd eaiwtedt0 (.acivtog botaew edt gaiisiow ototed 
pdidw odd tevo Ji aetudiateth bas desw edd to motdrog 8 aevos 
, edtoevomet yiloterse : gafgsogs testis .iedd gatltos .s98asq 
: ietedsw asefo af eaaoge edd duo gnidagw ylinetesoo .198 
‘Yo ysilssp yissiag edt Jedd tezaiot seven {Is to garit s04 


sete, as daard a diiw wath aso soy ~aeenteels at desw a 
ostu0o8 atdd etiupos of :,fioneg a déiw es Yleatostg bas 
mh oa ton Ifiw yoy (Yissaecen at eottosig ators htovs 
{fiw wo) boystuooa th gon Ti dud. ,tqmestg tarit edd 
-,ftobeett baa [fide déiw daaid edd 
t anived to bwowg nt e009 ,etcmmiged of ootvds [entt A 
1-20 , dt tno ot anetesd bos antweth desw gattt etd be 
f doy, joa at teqesg edd dew tegaol on e1s aadasu odd 
| sao < ood ‘Tio dso Tf 2gtew gaiws1b edi bas) .werdit 
‘ (e$alweth # gatvomey etoted ys5 a tasel 


(reo eid «Re a 

% Behe eis) 44. ¢a00 
past Bod teen aie laksa! 
bs “ghey aaa pteAte ore 


aa steteTrwWs «4 | , eG 


> a” ( 
Mego, ‘+ my ‘hy ws 
Ba) aah i. aete © 4 
; oa f ra on : ‘ 7 4 
Ce . or! % 


a sy —— “a eo St 


27 
tension of the dried and stretched parts, 

The sponge may soften too dark washes and remove streaks; 
but this remedy must not be abused. When sponging,: use much 
water, very lightly and patiently; the water must, he very 
clean,: and commence by wetting fully the rest of the paper 
before wetting the washed portion.) Otherwise thw sponge re= 
moves a portion of the wash and distributes it, over the white 
paper, soiling that, After sponging,: carefully remove the wae 
ter, constantly washing out the sponge in clean water.) 

But first of all, never forget that. the primary quality of: 


8 wash is elearness-: You can draw with a brush as clearly 
and precisely as with a pencil.) To acquire this accuracy and 
avoid errors practice is necessary; you will not sueceed at 
the first attempt,: but. if not discouraged,: you will soon use 
the brush with skill and freedon. 

A final advice to beginners.) One is proud of having finish- 
ed his first. wash drawing and hastens to eut it off.: Bven if 
the washes ere no longer wet,: the paper is not, yet. dry in its 
fibres,: and the drawing warps if eut, of f too soone; Wait at 
least a day before removing a drawinge: 


Werte. ae ly ee wien? a: at aa 


iN 
Py (4) 9 te DHINARG JARUTOGTIHOMA 4& tetqedd, 
we setnometiope adI «= .8aiwsib [aokitemoeD-~) ,YIAMMUZ 
spenesnesne! o~ (Otdeveld =~ .notines + .aald «= .selsod 
m7 ~~ /.M0idatuoaetqes etelquoe e 10% anatitosio1g [s1eVvee 
Si assdtontess bos alsotdweY «-'.eelgqnsxe yapxe vd gotwerd<~ 
wed rom Jeong gaan — ow atvotdaoo Bnidtintt eontd «« 
The ~etnengoley 
=~ jeYtomem sort gotinses? ~ swolio? od hoddeM «~ -,2eedotad? 
' eeedodede to soltsoe le? 


bedut: 
vegetsoon .gatwor’ {sotaismess af Saiwatd leas doedidors 
af iq oftdW .1slésitvasq at gatwarh bowted od you Sna >, pat 
=O08>,2d0e{(¢0 to sonsiseqas edd yfno adaesatqet aatwarh supse 
ge Lguaxe 10% .e18 yods ae aodd adnezetget antweth Lactaisten 
ies edi et 2 .hit bas ovidosegqereq al [atiqas s awode 5 -,yf4 
bere ® timieg enols boddeow aid? .gantwetbh [satasemoeg ai Iediqae 
or edaqmoos edi to aattqesnoo s to aotdssi{sax Josxe teem add 
die! ogmi af ti avdT .bestieox ybeorls Qatddyns Yo solsouborg 
A yenoitseto yd evtl tadd ,eetitasbal Ons sixes edt [ls a0 
adanco,eisdinast 19 yrell{tias ,ytlewet, 10 eentdosa to 10 
i areK 4. gvetutoedidors, 10 aacliseitidiel.,aqotsatooeb 1x0 nai 
/etso off .yostH902 eduloeds nedd at ydilevp vyisaiag ad! 
Lue eto esigaial aét > ,ovtazceoxe at yoetuoes aids anitaietdo 
oi s yd setttb ayswils [fiw nofatoe1g Isebt bas gntwsib edt 
“aha [adtatemoes at bodéem eaatine oct .eail Laotisa e 
ged, sove:,to1t]e to sesasdo [ia gathtiova at asatenos 
dd ye lace ssexrstiib s 10 emss edd ds gBatusih & gatyqos 
Pasa, @t dl .tusttoqmiay gated wort ast ai ersbseety L[eot 
eg ? eetsene gadd yhbuds edd sort ditened edd 10% tasdiogat 
 Isotnedoen s yf{e1t0em od si aeelny ».gatwesbh 8 to noldsoe 
oy to ato s gatwsth edt gnivem tot elgtontiq staxtt edt 
fod et basd bas exe edt to oatorexe a8 28 {low 26 sonegtl 
Bd sHoy at eouborges of), fehom odd déiw tlea e'eao ytit 
es Ieatgito edé¢ to drow ed¢ ansom ouge edt vd 


: “Ratdsienstd Yi ;toansm seea od vi bosootg bas seagteod 
. geht dose», ,aniwaih « otal ersdoodtdora to dtow Isetos 
: eae entrees? adt etvane of dt awath eved dagm 10 
ot cs tier § regaiwedil 
| ootorg Saot0 3328 ea? fatds to? ease odd ots Jedl 


= 2 as . ” 


2" . ' 
Bac) Pe eet eee 


tgtto edd to eisbesetg to ehos oft door ,$aivath 8 gniy 


, 


28 
Chapter 3.. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING,: 

SUMMARY, +-Geometrical drawing.) -- Its requirements.) -< 
Scales.; -=« Plan.i «- Section.) «« Elevation.) -- Necessity of 
several projections for. a complete representation.) «-Axes.: 
--Drawing by axes; examples, -- Verticals and projectéons,: 
-- Lines limiting contours.) «= Oblique projections.; -«- Dee 
velopments.| 

Sketches.: «- Method to follow.) -- Sketches from memory.) «= 
Selection of sketches: 


Architectural drawing is geometrical drawing, accurate drawe- 
ing,: and may be termed drawing in particilar. While pictur- 
esque drawing represents only the appearance of objects,: geo- 
metricel drawing represents them as they ere.: For example, 
Fig.| 4 shows a capital in perspective and Fig.) 5. is the same 
capital in geometrical drawing.: This method alone permits. 
the mest exact. realization of a conception or the accurate re- 
production of anything already realized.; Thus it is imposed 
on all the arts and industries, that live by creations,: whethe 
er of machines or jewelry,: artillery or furniture,: construct= 
ion or decoration,. fortifications or architectures; 

Its primary quality is then absolute accuracy.; No care for. 
obtaining this accuracy is excessive,: for in spite of this, 
the drawing and ideal precision will always differ by e@ mathe 
e matical line.; The entire method in geometrical drawing then 
consists in avoiding all chances of error,: even when merely 
copying a drawing at the same or a different scale, the log- 
ical procedure is far from being unimportant.: It is not less 
important for the benefit from the study that assures the exe 
ecution of a drawing, unless it be merely a mechanical work,.; 

The first. principle for making the drawing a work of intel 
ligence as well as an exercise of the eye and hand is to idene 
tify one's self with the model, to reproduce in your turn and 
by the same means the work of the original draftsman. In cop] 
ying a drawing,: seek the mode of procedure of the original 
designer and proceed in the same manner; if translating an 
actual work of architecture into a drawing,: seek how its auth- 
or must have drawn it to ensure its execution,: and proceed 
likewise.) | 

What are the means for this? The different. pro§ections com— — 


f 


oP 
< Wan 
ov rd 1 


es 

+ -+,tebro etdd eto .anotiavelo bas enotsooe + enalg at benid 

-- yd ¢wo Hial ei ezaatwes1h seedT ;.en0 Leotpal edt ef tt 107 

| jteRtiwaxh edd bas dootdo edd aoewsed batqobs otdst 8 \,29afs02 

get to eno jbo1t9te1g od od ote eeleoe elqata taom oAT 

-Ismtoob yleom4 :.(exiea [fut OF\f +o OOL\E) eatem r9q astiem: 
“81 ysm ansoaset Isttetsm jud-.art0ine of bast tea ob saiian 
% tis to eotwd od yllatense Litw dotdw: eeieoa testo orisp 
49q setionisaso Of to @ ,2erdemisaes § xo S\P euds yr9emtol 


q 


ea (osiie [fyt @\f vo OS\E Oa\E » OO8\E) easton 


ddgted oldsttsvy s je eottihe ms Yo nottoss s at aglq ott 
| »etsq) atelq ,allew anivoseitedat eaniq [sdmoxntiod & yd sham 
Wiis Wede oF Sdijted teqorq s te uslq etdt omuesh ;.o¢e ,sacitis 
7, @tetg \ewobalw bas etco0hb yalisw ) aoitourdenos to aelisteb od? 
ge Debtege1 od yeu $1 wots soosigettl \,2redaslia 10 aanaloo 
Qfed wrotins e« ds etusoursda odd wort usdad gatrqat Jalt s 
Ne edd evods soldoursenos edd to disq 6 adneaetger 5 git 
ae eae “V .Qf9 Yd aelq at awode at dotdw 
eit yd nwode ei aotdon1den0co edt nelq beavean ed a0 
Jootorg ed yeu 42 wo dud :,dnemole aldsiisvat as guoitose Iss 
aisig edd soalgwarit ods nl .eids sveds 10 woled anidivas be 
_ aeasd ed baoyod gaisvoe{jorg atisq Letsdoedidors oxodd awode 
om Rael »,ebathbivuem eesd aa dovataiq 10 allew edé to 
+agat. 90 adlusv edt awode ets o220 baoosa add af 10 »,908 
Lie tied 10.,anoldoa{o1g dtod .asoisi0o to vetudalds tne 
is ‘tadeesedni Yo e1s wolsd bas evods didod aodw nevis o18 
a “edi to soltibe as Yo notsoaatetni as et notiosa odT 
at nelq odd tedw ylisoiscrev afi di <«anelq Laoidisv «2 
86 MG dkvosese2u: eds ewode gexlt ¢i eaiwedil bod j.ylled 
\"e ebrase aettiduo ezoil .moitouidenco ods déiw aslq bomvass 
Miap etoig od vem asia edd wo as nedt :.ncitooa ai adtag odd 
rer ead oi di ao betoe{jorg ed beobat sdgim sade [le 
ig ‘dnstotiivoe ylers1 at wotdoes olgnis « dadd swode aid 
a bas -,ocitibs as to toivedai exttne edt dnuooos odni edad 
19 4% snaiq 6s at ei en0 .ytsees0en yYlisxssa9§ eta ows Jasol 
edd ynotdoos Ieulhudignuel edj ai bas sheost eds of asIvoib 
$2 eztovanets sid ei bas shsoet edi of I[eflaiaqg zi asdio 
3081 yléneupert oais e183 eaoltyoss yishnoose evorsmaull 
WS ute eid nt eee tot Ifsw ebsost s of bedimil noftoos A 
{aed a “elttorg s bontes tedée1 @t aotésvele edd 
7 I Lana sotitbe eft to noitoetotg edd ef sottavele edt 


et 


Wd 


29 
bined in plans,: sections and elevations.) Note this order,: 
for it. is the logical one.; These drawings are laid ont, by 
scales,. a ratio adopted between the object and the drawing.) 

The most simple scales are to. be preferred;. one or ten cent- 
imetres per metee (1/100 or 1/10 full size),; Purely decimal 
ratios do not lead to errors. But material reasons may ree 
quire other scales,: which will generally be twice or half the 
former; thus 1/2 or 2 centimetres,: 5. or 20 centimetres per 
metre (1/200,: 1/50,: 1/20. or 1/5. full size), 

The plan is a section of an edifice at a variable height 
made by a horizontal plane intersecting walls,: piers,: par= 
titions,: etc.) Assume this plan at a proper height to show all 
the details of construction,: walls,: doors and windows,: piers, : 
columns or. pilasters, fireplaces etc.: It may be regarded as 
a flat imprint taken from the structure at a uniform height.; 
Hig.: 6 represents a part of the construction above the grounds 
which is shown in plan by Fig. 7.° 

On the assumed plan the construction is shown by its horizon- 
tal section§:,an invariable element,: but on it may be project» 
ed anything below or above this.) In the first. place the plan 
shows those architectural parts projecting beyond the bases 
of the walls or piers, such as base mouldings,: plinths,: steps 
etc. Or in the second case are shown the vaults or ceilings, 
entabletures or eornices.; Both projections,: or half of each 
are given,: when both above and below are of interest, 

The. section is an intersection of an edifice or its part by 
a vertical plane;. it. is vertically what the plan is horizone- 
tally.) And likewise it first shows the intersections of the 
assumed plan with the construction. These outlines comprise 
the parts in section.: Then as on the plan may be projected 
all that might. indeed be projected on it in the building.) 

This shows that a single section is rarely sufficient to 
take into account, the entire interior of an edifice,: and at 
least two are generally necessary.: One is in a plane perpen= 
diculer to the facade and is the longitudinal section; the 
other is parallel to the facade and is the transverse section.) 
Numerous secondary sections are also frequently necessary. 

A section limited to a facade wall for use in the study of 
the elevation is rather termed a profile.: 

The elevation is the projection of the edifice on an 


OF. 
= 2 yiev ia huis eetxrqmoo ysm dl .emetg Lsaotitev ([sntedxe 
a bne dorsde se to ehscat Isgionixzg edd .elquaxe 102 ,bedarts 
ae io: ‘s2iqeamatd eit dosd tedd 

fexevee yetedwyieve e1udoedidots mietiau Yo easo mi tqeoxd 
© edd danooos odnt gnidss tot yiseeooon eta enotsavele 
.8ebsost 180% bas eobte ,Isqtonirg yeatttbe edt to 

| Otisvele coals baa aottiose ,nelq to siqmaxe as #i ot0d 
| F mcals. *,R24) .omod te endiT Yo dowd edd .gatbLiaud stealquoo x 

| berivpet ets ~agaiweth ag0% asd eeel on sedét evteadoe got 
‘einempnom elquie yisv aidd tneaerqet 

Dpentens woda od tnetotttua ¢dtted s te asied ah nalq edt 
: q:,addaitlg eft tisd ono ab 3akdididxe ,moitoss ai eaun 
Ay,aewsdeldetiae bas ativev eft refido ed? wo bas) ,.9t9 a0and 
i t@61 8 Dns i,silie guied déod jaooittwa ebeost ebie ofgata 
et [sqtontig oft gutsaeqes sausocd aaelaan sd bivew ehso 
Qodinees Joa aeoh di tot yisaasosn gi ebeosrt shta edd tn8 
a2 ise ios fa aoaigeee [antbutigaol ed? -.agatesabh raddo edt 
enimisteb seshaort edé to eaodd diiw sinenwsle ett tot 
88 aso eno. eotiibe ed? to sofitecqmoe edi s9edie yliaebiva 
feidw bas yrseseoen ois anaisoo{oty so .egaiwerh yoam wod 
a Rene 9 ‘eistees seou 

* qge: sVisaespet?. thin aixe brow sd? «= °,ca%A Yad Ou TWAnd 
Ds Sebegnce to bas Sniweth to yet edt at di yasthude au0y at 
ae o  teheatteb ylieqotq ed-od ai divndsdd o8 

iL ond no yletem et dotdw,atxe Lsotatemoes s woud aoY 
oan enelg Isolidemmys « adisq-Isups owt odni ganibtv 
gem 6. monoftiuloves to sostive a al aslog edd aninitet enll 
HE of (.2eesd asivger déiw maizq ¢dyia 2 of tl bilos 
§ eowitosoo Ji 102>,bebaeixe etom ali'otuioedidovea ni aixe 
eam '@ Yo zevied ows edd aniteisqee onalq Isoidiev atisne 
 aetiesa, eeerget Ieoftdget2 edi dguoddis audT:.eanttibe [esit 
10% .eaditl otem 2 tom ai di sadd r9dmemer ,enil sdgta « 
~ vison @ixe adi>,aelq adi: Raiwoda ai;doido 6 exes olgme 
a Joy ,aelg oft to antitso odd gatdoeaid eati sdytarde edd 


‘ee 
Pa 


sp to eenodeyod off bag :,tneusnom siitns odd To aixs 
‘gh 


oo edd to s1dn9eo edd» modiyd Settoaqus ateiflebasdo edd 
uonaegh odd 10 ets | ae ichieae eft Yo 10 wobniw esct 


ae 2] 


ot d@nsig sibiim edd toe saitoafetg edé yino ak sartl 


30: 
external vertical plane. It may comprise parts very far sep- 
arated,: for example, the principal facade of a chureh and far- 
ther back the transepts.) 

Except in case of uniform architecture everywhere,: several 
elevations are necessary for taking into account the exterior 
of the edifice; principal, side and rear facades. 

Here is an example of plan,: section and also elevations for. 
a complete building, the Arch of Titus at Rome.) (Fig.: 8). 

You observe that, no less than four drawings are required to. 
represent this very simple monument. 

The plan is taken at a height sufficient to show the col~- 
umns in section, exhibiting @n one half the plinths,: pedestals, 
bases etc.,: and on the other the vaults and entablatures.; A 
single side facade suffices, both being alike,: and @ rear. fa- 
cade would be useless because repeating the principal facade.: 
But the side facade is necessary for it does not; result from 
the other. drawings.: The longitudinal section alse suffices,: 
for its elements with those of the facades determine everythin 
Evidently after the composition of the edifice,: one can see 
how many drawings or projections are necessary and which are 
most useful.; 

DRAWING BY AXES, -~ The word axis. will freguently reappear. 
in your studies; it is the key of drawing and of camp Gameter,> | 
so that it is to be properly defined.: 

You. know a geometrical axis,: which is merely on the line di- 
viding into two equal parts. a symmetrical plane figure,: or the 
line joining the poles in a surface of revolutionor a regular 
solid,: like a right prism with regular bases.; The idea of the 
axis in architecture is more extended,: for it comprises the 
entire vertical plane separating the two halves of a symmeteq 
rical edifice.) Thus although its graphical representation is 
a right line, remember that, it. is not a mere line.: For exe 
ample, take a church;in showing its plan, its axis will be 
the straight line bisecting the outline of the plan,: yet this 
line is only the projection of the middle plane forming the 
axis of the entire monument,: and the keystones of the vaults,: 
the chandeliers supported bythem,: the centre of the great 
rose window or of the apsidal window, are on the axis of the 
church.: Note further that the axis of the plan,: the: axis of 
your. principal or. rear facade, and that, of the longitudinal 


: ré 
) eimee add To wpotwoht esedd mo pecaetd Ylno o18 ) .aciides 
ae WAR wT reaixs [sgtoning edd at dokdw jenalq Ise 
Boxe edd er w9em10t ed of [9llaieq jexredto eta sisds ty4 
| sted? neowsed ateig edd to sexs edd baa aelets ebfe odd to 
edd. .ysd dose to ,etqeenait edt Yo sexs odd ors Yloetevenat? 
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a ae a to tennsm edd bas aalg eid gntybota +4 
oie a3 to dnemegasiie odd bas ,edatv008 etom Yiynebive st 
eon ‘Ifedni ead be eoacvagaie aid? mone Seyenon mort tat 26 
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31 
settion,: are only traces on these drawings of the same verti- 
cal plane,: which is the principal axis.; ; 

But there are others; parallel to the former are the axes | 
of the side aisles and the axes of the piers between then.: 
fransversely are the axes of the transepts,: of each bay,: then 
the radial axes of the chapels ete. 

If the plan of this ehurch is to be drawn,: by locating first. 
these various axes very precisely,: you will succeed in cone 
structing the plan.; Also by placing the axes with care and 
verifying them,: chances of errors are minimized, 

Thus on an architectural drawing it is necessary to first 
begin with the axes.: 

This method of capital importance will be explained by some 
examples.: Commence by drawing a plan,: assumed to be that. of 
the beautiful vestibule of the Mint. at. Paris.) (Fig.i 9).: 

After. drawing axis 1 as the principal axis of the monument, : 
you note that the five aisles of the middle pavilion are equaj. 
Then by first locating the outer axes 2,: and bisecting, the 
intermediate axes 3 are obtained.) Thus the chance of error 
is lessened,: but would be doubled if you locate axes 1,4, 2,%: 
Passing to the side, you. place the outer axes 4 and then 5,: 
bisecting the space 4 to 5. to obtain axis 6,: These are the 
principal axes of the aisles.: 

Next. come the axes 7 of the rows of columns,: arranging them 
with reference to the axes 3; finally the axes 8 with refer~ 
ence to the outer axes 7,: controlling them by the axes 2,) 

Similarly lengthwise,: locating first axis 1,: then the oute 
er axes 2; bisectins to find 3,: and laying off on each side 
of 3 the half distance, the axes 5 and 6 of the columns are 
found.; Secondary axes ars located by the same method,: 

Fineally,: it is well to test the different operations by ver- 
ifying the equality of distances of the symmetrical secondary 
axes from the central axis,: and in general by operations dife 
fering from those employed in placing then.) 

By studying this plan and the manner of laying it out,: it, 
is evidenfly more accurate,: and the arrangement of the axes 
és far from unimportant, This exercises the intelligence of 
the draft smun.; 

On this point, I may say that it is more difficult to draw a 


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32 
plan properly than is supposed,: perhaps more than anything 
else.; Accuracy in plans iw imperative, and to familiarize 
yourself with architectural drawing, you will do well to 
first practice drawing plans.) 

Pass to. sections.) «- Taking the same example of the Mint,: 
you see readily that the architect could fully study his com- 
position by the aid of numerous sections.) Two are particular- 
ly necessary,: the two on the principal axes of symmetry,: 
crosswise and lengthwise.: 

If both are to be: drawn, first examine which determines or. 
controls the other.; You see that in this case it is the trans- 
verse section(parallel to the facede).; The longitudinal sec-« 
tion is merely the projection of the other,; Then commence 
with the transverse section (Fig.; 10).; 

First locate the axes as on the plan,: 1,: 2,: 3,: 7,: and 83. 
then verifying them,; Thus is unity of method used in the 
drawings of plan and sections.: 

As for the profiles of parts in section, first, determine 
the heights of the essential elements,; Taking the floor A 
as a starting point,: locate first the upper line B of the cap- 
itals of the columns,: and then the centres. of the vaults C and 

Then using these controlling lines,: you draw the details 
successively. Thus for the columns locate heights of bases 
from the floor A;. the heights of the capitals and archi- 
traves with relation to your line B,; ividently if all these. 
heights were set off from the floor A the least error would 
sensibly deform your capitals,: while the total height AB of 
the column being once determined,: you can err but little in 
the small height of the base or that of the capital,: and even 
admitting a slight error,: this will not be observed with ree 
gard to the length of the shaft of the column.; You should 
thus control the heights by verifications,: that are always 
possible,; 

These indications suffice to exhibit the method; you must 
apply it,: and there is no need of stating how you should draw 
the longitudinal section.; . 

ELEVATIONS. «-In the preceding the drawing may proceed with 
axes, even for parts in elevation.: But on an elevation it. 
is not always so,: for some profiles in section or elevation 
must. be traced from conventional plumb lines.) For example,: 


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take a fragment of the Dorie order from the Parthenon (Figdi).: 

To reproduce this drawing,: the projections must be measured 
from a single vertical.; The axis of the column is not a logice 
al starting point,: for it determines nothing but the column.: 
It is better to proceed as the author of the drawing must. 
have done,: who employed a plumb line on the exterior and meas~- 
ured the disyances from that. line.:; But thas plumb line only 
serves for the profile and to locate the axis ofthe column; 
then you draw by axes all that this method comprises; thus 
you place the axis A of the column,: B of the triglyphs,: C of 
the metopes,: D of the lion's head etc.) For the heights, first 
lay off the large divisions,: the entire capital,: entire 
frieze and cornice; then refer each detail in height to 
these primary divisions.: 

The channels of the triglyphs and the drops are to be traced 
according to their respective axes.; As for the flutes of the 
column,: which can only be drawn by the aid of two project- 
ions, do not copy them,: but project from the plan, dividing 
its circumference into twenty parts.) 

First study your model thoroughly. Thus in the proposed 
example,: a careful examination shows that the architrave is 
slightly inclined,: but not the frieze... If you have a chance 
to see a cast of what you draw,: either similar or actually so,: 
do not fail to study it.; I cannot too frequently repeat,: that 
architectural drawing must not be limited to an exercise of 
the hand,: but. must. be a real study of what. you drawe) 

LIMITING LINES.: «You. know the abscissas and ordinates of 
geometry. For. all parts of a drawing whose elements are not. 
geometrical lines such as the straight line or circle,: the 
method of abscissas and ordinates is required for a profile,: 
a series of carved ornaments, such as egss etc. But it 
should be well chosen. For example,: take a very simple exam- 
ple of a baluster (Fig.) 12).; It is evidently drawn by refer- 
ence to its axis by locating general divisions,: AWB(plinth),: 
BeC( base or scotia),: CeD(shaft),: DeE(cap),: after which you 
place the secondary lines of the mouldings.} But between C and 
D,. for example,: the profile of the shaft may vary much,: and 
it can only be drawn by horizontals.; Instead of taking arbi« 
trary lines, draw the limiting line of the width mem,: mark 
its location M and transfer this operation to your drawing; - 


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similarly for the line nen and the points N,: which gives the 
least. diameter. Do not. mark these points by 4 mere pencil 
dot,: but trace your limiting lines everywhere and erase them 
only after inking.; These lines will guide and give accuracy 
in drawins.; 

Take another example,: afragment of a cornice with various 
ornaments, taken from the Temple of Concord at. Rome( Fig.) 13).: 
fhe working lines marked on this drawing,: and which must; be 
preserved in pencil until completion of the. drawing,: will suf- 
ficiently indicate the method to. be followed, without, sisal 
ing my explanation. 

In brief,: architectural drawing is to be entirely accurate 
and requires a thoughtful method and systematic habits.) Drawe 
ing gains everything, including facility.) But. the method can 
only be general;. the intelligence of the draftsman in apply- 
ing it will always recognize the advance from principal to sece 
ondary.: Again, this is merely the mechanism of drawing,: to 
which must, be added taste, refinement and feeling, for that 
is only one precept; only by hammering can one become a smithe; 

OBLIQUE PROJECTIONS.) --It frequently occurs that. on a fae 
cade or section, architectural motivewsare oblique to the prin= 
cipal plane of projectdon.’ Thus on a circular edifice a series. 
of similar windows project. on the facade at different angles,: 
consequently having different, widths,: but, their heights to 
not. varye} 

Familiarize yourself nibh these conditions that may free 
quently occur.; Here descriptive geometry will be precious,: for 
all that concerns chamges in planes of projection,: recesses 
and developments,: 

With a small difficulty is also found a great. benefit. To 
properly project a motive at. any angle it must be known and 
analyzed thoroughly,: and an architectural arrangement, drawa 
in normal projection only gives up its secrets when drawn in 
oblique projection.: 

Then as a very useful exercise,: I advise you to supplement. 
your. normal by oblique projections,: a good exercise in draw- 
ing and a particularly excellent. preparation for architecture; 
forced to analyze your models,: this study compels you to see 
in space,: note the projections and see the position of dew 
tails.; You work on the reality and no longer on the image; soon 


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you will see the utility of this exercise,; 

I give here as an example one of the windows of the second 
story of PalacecFarnese at. Rome,: projected normally and then 
at an angle (Fis.; 14).: Evidently only the normal projection 
permits the study of proportions,: and that in oblique projece 
tion shows better to a besinner the composition of that wine 
dow, its projections ets.: 

Likewise translates projections into developments or inverse- 
ely,: especially for drawings of vaults. Evidently the decora- 
tion of a cylindrical vault,: a hood,: or a circular wall,: con-~ 
Cave or convex,: can only be studied on a development; but on 
the entirety of a drawing even this decoration appears in pro- 
jection.) Thus for example, is a drawing representing a bay of 
the logsias of Raphael at the Vatican (Fig.15,).° The arches 
in section are represented in projection and elsewhere in 
development,: while the vault is. shown in development,: 

In brisf,: study architectural drawing: like architects;: Bee 
come accustomed to see in the drawing the object drawn; the 
representation must soon become for. you merely a language, 
and you, actually see the thins, gust as with the composer 
of music,: while jotting down on ruled paper his written com-= 
position,: he actually hears it;. just. as. in reading in a book 
with printed letters,: you no longer see the material signs 
in lending yourself to the emotion of the understood words.; 

SKEPCHES,: 

All the precedins treats of accurate drawinss,: measured and 
made on the board with square and compasses.; The part. of in- 
telligence in these drawings has been fully shown.’ But you 
will also draw otherwise in sketches, where you owe nothing 
except. to yourself: 

The sketch will be the most rapid means of progress in your 
art,: for you cannot. sketch without having carefully examined 
and analyzed the object,: nor render it without intelligence 
and knowledge of the subject. Not only must you seize the 
compositiokh,: distinguish its elements, but must fix its pro- 
portions without aid except a careful study of those propor- 
tions.; Neither compasses nor rules,: the eye alone being the 
sole instrument of measure and of estimating proportions.: 

Nothing is more charming and attractive than the sketch, 
but the habit is not improvised,: for much must be done before 


| | ae 
dod. sevice choles eotdosrg ;yinisdieo bas exendest? giintadss 
ed bos bhodéem edd Se efivbsa emoe evi desol te yar I 
ceil ‘.gonotedte [utes to eotodo 
| ee itatevenys Yo holseelico's 104 dosede & otam seven Jest? 
| *goY ,9e8° 63 poy dosed od bos beviteb Sttened eid 10% dnd 
evedd dod eetbute asoy to etinevoice es ssooddodede evrevetd 
ovedte avoy Ji neftonrtent asoy tot emes edd ef ditsned 
edi Ils bevebhnet asd dostete beielqmon yseve sis]6qge 
dom bas .ee2 o3 soy dosed o¢ ystleet edd mort mete etek 
ar eante’ febom asoy yi bertivupes e6 thd .exciistweesitoed sort 
pyeteddo ot tnfwode tol gon ,encitsvelo bas enotioes .ensla 
/ 6d tebr0 ni esivesem goeteh -.ybude deucsodd snoy oxsens of 
Beco Bie uc  “,dnSaptdent eisiyoos as sye as0y stan 
b8 CF HOY Saimodsenoos Seaitsienoes ed bivode esfodete ane 
ti elqusexe 101s ylenpiide bedaool Yi neve > .vyllsotriesoes 
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gatved: aiedw ylno' dud ,evisdesqaieq ni sedodede edlaw sedted 
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Sntbede ddtw .«selo bae ddgifl ed Bloode dogeda A 
‘ paivend's,3aiseboos x0 dosid jvoddiw ind) Yetlos ezergxe 
oe is ‘eif{e Yo Jdevit 
a eeivbe “ignoxds oos Jonasos li ,gvoeteres Yi ylisait 
| Wey evresd0 .exiotexe ineflooxe ms ae Yiosem moxt ant 
of dqmetis bae emod nintet:,eidtescg ee yleeofe as 
yrezd0 ,doelveqmi ed bos voy ysided [fiw yiromem as0Y 
; .YIBeseoen Ti eotadd to eotwd. ylinterso atom nisg 
god Jjnow poy Ti es doeri0e es dotedte « etiam yilant? {Lliw 
| «tft ete 
gq betexpe no dodexe s Yo elqmexe as ered inevzerq I 
ce. edd il dnemgs1) faindoedivors oe Snied evisom ond 
i ey “AOL.827) ervood edd se ebisdaytad - 
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s tise1 edd ercted ebhiadvo ;é180 ni beldvob ed [fiw eeibuse 
poeonpuneae 28 Isdidinebi es edoside to gatdodede edd 
Sagan has noldidus ayoy edJsishisxe steve ,relimte ejer 


if 


ys 


36 
attaining freshness and certainty; practice alone serves,: but. 
I. may at least. give some advice concerning the method and the 
choice of useful sketches,: 

First never make a sketch for a sollection of materials,: 
but. for the benefit derived and to teach you to see. You may 
preserve sketchbooks as souvenirs of your studies, but the 
benefit is the same for your instruction if your sketches dis- 
appear; every completed sketch has rendered all its service.) 

Make them from the reality to teach you to see, and not 
from representations, but as required by your model with 
plans,: sections and elevations,: not for showing to others,: but, 
to ensure your. thorough study.. Reject. measures in order to 
make your. eye an accurate instrument. 

Your sketches should be geometrical,: accustoming you to see 
geometrically,: even if located obliquely,: for example, if you 
wish to draw the upper entablature of an edifice; 

Later make sketches in perspective,: but. only. when having 
the assured habit. of the geometrical. Perspective sketches 
only supplement those in geometrical forms.: 

At. first you will do well to use squared paper,: that faq 
cilitates accuracy,: but. as soon as you can free yourself from 
that guidance, use only plain paper. 

A sketch should be light, and clear, with shading only to 
express relief,: but. without black or rendering,: drawing being 
first. of all.: 

Finally if courageous,: I. cannot too strongly advise sketch- 
ing from memory as an excellent exercise, Observe your model 
as closely as possible,: return home and attempt, to sketch it.; 
Your memory will betray you and be imperfect.: Observe ib, aw 
gain more carefully, twice or thrice if necessary, and you 
will finally make a sketch as correct as if you went to comp- 
are it.; 

I present here an example of a sketch on squared paper,: 
the motive being an architectural fragment from the Hall of 
Caryatids at. the Louvre (Fis.16),: 

So that this work be truly useful to you,. it is necessary 
to pursue your studies and apply yourself; or rather your 
studies will be doubled in part; outside before the reality 
the sketching of objects as identical as possible,: at any 
rate similar. Never exaggerate your ambition and do not at, fir 


a). ¥é 
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yen soy nedd bas» ersdaidsiae ne wath [Liw woy dsdd emsees I 
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Yo seibnde odd Je Jnoverg ots bos seileds oa af ers. voy tI 
eos [ftw yoy ,1edsem sedt to enoeeel edd has sebsein0o 1H0Y 
exe jwG .woy od tedde! bseob s od ILiw tsdd..ehotdd yuse se08d 
‘poy bas weds eee! yoy od dno bedoiog od oso bas deixe eelque 
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» asoy divanod .eciseinev edt redel bas adnemele edd dext? se 
B.setleds 10 [oofoe edd sot eotvbs svieost {fiw woy bas adood 
e060 bas soy dontdent od oredd ayenis ef yiilses to good ond 
eid base eelawexe deed edd yd ancidourdent eveds wilt 
) \eedodexe soy exe esedd> niete yee Inedeixe iadw to dduad 
| bas teilets edi at ybute edd Ielleseq of voy to des nods I 
_etdb.doodiotede edd bus brsod goiwerh edd yd ydileert edd Yo 
e od [iiw woy>,di sveig voy ti bas | olitsvet ef bodies 
bas ytsesooon ef Iliw ipa .eecige%o tu0g to asyedo edd yd be 
) eq bos yliot weviezmeds eioveb neve stediol ,di dosl yas 
eke ieodd Qnibie duodéiw novacl 10 vesd hbetsoibsi eds of vidneid 
we bain to seonelbiqevissid ini [otadaneds to ason L[enceteg 
“8 Mo easem Intsowoo vids soelgen teve..iliw to dosl 
ss ti. bas’ dnebiInoo ed .eomo we etIveex esa Jon ob voy TI bas 
| ny 7 “Si no tlearvoy edsfudersza0n soos Iliw 
oe OME ho eometnodm: edt Go beomiumes o¢ ao if 1.1 odo!) 
se do yroodl ai cwvunoo est vio} eocdond ot peivot todd tro 
g Sownns wo fo eeu edt wtvD om Jo Soolob oft fo evwihoot 
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> ko, Sowtow: edt re ebow wetoteds jo maitos$iwo Fvegiitetuns 
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: 57 
attempt a sketch of the facade of a cathedral or palace.) But. 
I. assume that you will draw an entablature,: and then you may. 
find at, hand a similar. entablature,: which foruas your. sketch.’ 

If you are in an atelier and are present at the studies of 
your conrades and the lessons of ther master,: you will see and 
hear. many things, that will be a dead letter to you. But exe 
amples exist and can be pointed out to you; see them and you 
will understand before them the misunderstood lesson; again 
a subject for your sketch,; 

You will later be able to compose for yourself and to study 
at. first the elements and later the varieties.; Consult your 
books and you will receive advice for the school or atelier.But 
the book of reality is always there to instruct. you and con} 
firm these instructions by the best examples and the superior. 
truth of what. exists.) I. say again,: there are your. sketches.: 

I. then ask of you to parallel the study in the atelier and 
of the reality by the drawing board and the sketchbook.This 
method is fertile,: and if yon pursue it,: you will be surpris-«~ 
ed by the charm of your progress,| But will is necessary and 
many lack it,. Workers even devote themselves fully and paq- 
tiently to the indicated task or lesson without, aiding the. 
personal work of thoughtful initiative;. idleness of mind and 
lack of will.: Never neglect. this powerful means of progress, : 
and if you do not. see results at. omce,: be confident. and you 
will soon congratulate yourself on it,: 

(Note 1. ti am a0 convinced of the imbortance of thio meth 
od,: that having to bropowe for the cowrnre im Sheory of Grvem-~ 
teetwre at the School of Sime Grta the we of an annual gitt,: 
Ni have asked that thia encouragement be assmiqned to the moot 
intelligent eollection of sketches wade of the actual eve 
treated in the course’). 


88 . 
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efter bas esbhere ).ewobsade tesd ~-)>,.2enfsVe~ ,d0RTL bas 
=m *,e6Tqmexd eee edd mi ed¢asgq Yo gnibsd? «- 
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48 
Chapter 4.) Shading im General and Washes. 

SUMMARY,: «- Shading in relief, --Shadoms at, 45°. --Shadow 
and light.; --Values,.; «-— Cast. shadows,: shades and reflections.: 
-» Shading of parts in the light; shadows,: «» Examples.: «= 
Rendering distances.: 


The drawings is only complete if on the drawing be placed 
the shading,: i.e.,: the expression of the form.; Any, mode of 
shading is good if it be correct,: The wash is the most. come= 
mon procedure for shading an architectural drawing; but the 
methods of shading are the same,: whether with wash or render- 
ed with the pen,: crayon or by mixed means.) | 

Shading has no absolute rules and all means are goody: if 
the effect be produced, reliefs and forms. being represented. 

Yet some general principles can and should guide in shading 
@ drawing.:, . 

SHADOWS AT 45°,; -- It is an invariable custom to assume 
the luminous rays,: whose horizontal and vertical projections 
make angles of 45° with the ground line,: the actual direction 
of the light being that of the diagonal of a cube with sides 
parallel and perpendicular: to the two planes of projection.) 

This has two advantages,: the outlining is easier,: which is 
to be considered,: the tracing of the shadows beins often 
lenghhy and complicated,: for the widths of shadows equal the 
projections; consequently the width of the shadows indicates 
the relief of one part with reference to another, 

Tracing shadows is frequently difficult,. and it. is one of 
the essential parts of descriptive seometry,: that you will 
further find in special treatises (Particularly M. Pillet's 
Trace des Ombres).: As for indications beyond drawing,: such as 
shadows of ornamental parts,.a feelings for projections will 
permit. giving them a true value by intelligent. indications, : 
a result of acquired experience.: 

VALUES,: --After tracing the shadows, pass everywhere the 
shade wash,: for your washes consist of shadows and lights,.: 

As a first principle remains that, distinction of shadow and 
light;: shadows are graduated as well as lights,: but one must 
distinguish between shadows and lights.i In the same drawing-- 
unless. with great distances between the different: planes -= 
the darkest lights must: be less dark than the shadows most 
lightened by reflections,: 


PF 

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39 

On the other hand,: Seometrical drawings not. having the illuse 
ions of perspective to show distances and projections,: is ree 
stricted to a more expressive shadins,: since only the values 
of tints indicate distances,: 

Thus to make a plane advance or recede in reference to an- 
other,: the only means will be to tint it differently.: Observe 
what. occurs in this respect in nature; while an object. placed 
near your eyes is vividly shaded,: a distant object is much 
less s0,: and at; the limit of the horizon is seen only a mass 
without details,: confused in a uniform gray.: Thus. the nearer. 
the object,: the more it ids shaded and the greater the differ- 
ence between shadows and lights;: on the contrary at the great- 
er distances the shadows and lights tend more to become con= 
fused.: Then as: a principle,: you will have on the first, plane 
vigorous shadows and bright. lights; between these. are inter= 
mediate proportions of shadows and lights.: And these effects 
are real at great. distances,: and arse to be observed when it 
iis necessary to make visible several planes,: but. in what pro- 
portion? There is a question of degree and of skill. 

So I. summarize the rule of-values for the different planes 
in this principle,: --for example when on a facade are pro- 
jections and recessions,=- that in the distance, little shading; 
but as you approach the first plane, the shading is to be more 
and more accentesd,: | 

What will be this shading? twofold,: shading of shadows and 
shading of lights;. this is conventional to a great. extent,: 
but I. shall endeavor to keep closely to nature. 

Figst by looking closely you will see no flat tints in nae 
ture, but. every light and shadow is shaded,: i. e.,: degraded; 
the shadows more sensibly than the lights. The shadows are 
modified by the reflections,: i-e.,: by the indirect. lights 
cast. on the shaded object. by the vicinity of other lighted 
objects.: 

Assuming a cylindrical body like the shaft. of a column,: 
Gast shadows and only actual shadows may be seen on the cylin- 
der.| Cast. shadows result from interception of light rays by 
another solid,: when without, this the cylinder would have been 
lighted; actual shadows. result from the absence of light on 
the part of the cylinder, that by its position cannot receive 
the luminous rays.: 


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Naturally, cast, shadows have less reflections.: Indeed the 
bending of light producing reflections comes from lighted 
bodies varying greatly. in nature,: but, which in theory can 
only be regarded as secondary sources of luminous rays,: whose 
resultant will be parallel to the light rays,: but. with the 
inverse direction.: In certain respects it, may be said,: that 
the phenomena of reflections and of elasticity are identical.: 
Thus while the light, has a direction of 45° downward from 
left to right, (conventionally),: the direction of the reflect- 
ions will be upward and from right to left,, 

This theoretical convention is too absolute but. is necess- 
ary,: and will be the rule for. your. shadins,.: Commence with the 
lights,: where the: tints are more easily understood... 

Assume a solid in white stone,: for example a sphere (Fig.; 
17).: It is. easily. seen that. the brightest. lighting acts at. 
the point of intersection of the surface by the luminous. ray 
passing through the centre; outside this pole of light,. the 
angles. of the luminous rays with the surface constantly dimin- 
ish in parallel zones with the luminous point astheir pole,: 
until they become tangent to the sphere. in a great cirele,: 
having the luminous point, as pole,: and which is the line sep- 
aratinsg the shadow and the light.; The light. then diminishes 
from the pole to the equator.; 

The reverse senso is. true in the shadow,: for the maximum ree 
flection will be at the other end of the diameter passing | 
through the luminogs point,: and the shadow diminishes in inten 
sity from the circle separating the shadow and light to that. 
pole of reflections,; 

But, if any body casts a shadow on the lighted portion of the 
sphere,: that. cast. shadow will have less strong reflections 
and is therefore more intense than the ahadow of the sphere,: 
and the more intense,: since it falls on a more strongly. lighte 
ed part of the sphere,.: 

Therefore two rules for shading; a shadow can only be cast 
on a body where it. would otherwise be in light;. the value 
or intensity of the cast shadow is in direct proportion to. 
the intensity of the light, at the same: point, 

Such is the theory explained for a very simple geometrical 
body. Examine its application to a fragment. of architecture,: 
for example,: the capital of a Doric column and its architrave, 


7 nok at Pad i 


: ) fe 
—@i dais wobsde dexil « bas beosid ete ewobade od? (82 229) 
 ed4 yldoohiva Swobsede exnednt seom oft od ILiw dad¥ ;.besasg 
| -faotabaiiyo eit o3 Ismion ysi1 & yd beatwiedeb A wobsdae seco 
jrobeds ¢eso odd to 'A "A edteg edd bos ameloo edd Yo soslime 
» te asthivem evi gnole notsuloves to ssetave edd toom dads 
wh end ai eldietv jon ets enoitositer Jeeddgtl odT :,ddgil . 
edizoago nsibiavem edd no buna noitdoe{otg edd batted su090 Jud 
| Bbedootis ieow osodd ,eldisiv edreg edd sot du8 4A dniog odd 
) yd Bedoelies yidu0h),4..8 adatog edt ed ILiw snatioeltes yd 
 -0S ~.anibivom edd Yo wi0% odd Yd bag nele wi noitieog t~iedd 
stedni eved [Liw 0..0 atasg elbbin edd eomerdxe esedd noord 
,ewobsie daso es 10 ewobede [aedos es sediis .eeulav sdsiber 
| Biv ddgil edd od noidelex diiw ‘D entituo eds tedd gnivieedo 
eyivemays ed nedd [ftw avedT .9.,09 edasq ofy déiw [soindemmye 
| =0f edé# 10% gotddgil te eixe as of souerstet déiw gnibsde Yo 
» ed [fiw dotdw.,ewobede to ysianedni ofd Yo bas edieqg evonis 
Sree ‘sh osthincem edd 
phi in oulew lenrenes Sheds 4 +,0 ehnibluom, gdgiarte edd 103 eA 
) eves ety 0,9 eeulev sibbiw edd Yo Jad’ od evotalana od 
. pbsedues seon aseowete gant soe ow. ,pddett edd o¢ anteasd 
4 id bos ,'S ,'s xiidasencg eft nedi bue.e dnieog edd od Iftn 
- dnezned edd biawod benex1sbh exom bas -er0m emooed ILiw sdpis 
e eres nseeennect dd3il edd {etardas of Saofe sud mo 
pereewse “¥llemion erom tebhotiyo efd sedirdte 
adel lit bas Severe ete Aaseade ARERRG ensIg odd sot eA 
fc boa ,'s,'s ds: aebatiyo edd nedd ddeit eael eviaoet 
eTevoe 708 » ebeddeif esom ed [Liw egole oft tud,,05,.9 js ee 
an ed diiw jdpil 10 wobsds at eeostave enslgq szedt to dose 
ed epbh noldoelter to sauoooe no aoddod of god mor? szsdigil 
> evad I ee bedsoibat od [fiw eoonsdeth oft bas | basorg edd 
a ess reto0ted emob 
“sbeifggs ei gntnozse x emer afd snaq dose Yo Lisdeb edt 104 
Ny. end js bas baswawob geso ef wobeda s .,e100 edd x01 eu 
fF wobsde edf -.T dnetdai edd evods wobsde [eudos as emits omee 
he 10% -.woddod oF god mort gntsddil aevonnidaoo yd bebade 
86 wobsde [endos ne. bne 0 ewobsade seso s1g etedd: eedo 
‘eenotiosltex1 dyin 
at es 3 rete ote ek & iilveot [liw antbeoerg of d mor? 
“(PE RET) Yo elfgmaxe 
y  patbads od’ etoette pevenear inemele vettons Iu8 


7 


41 
(Fis.: 18).: Phe shadows are traced and a first. shadow tint, is. 
passed,.; What will be the most intense shadow? Evidently the 
cast shadow A determined by a ray normal to the cylindrical 
surface of the column and the parts A’ A' of the cast. shadowp 
that meet the surface of revolution alongs its meridian of 
light,.; The lightest reflections are not. visible in the drawing, 
but oceur behind the projection and on the meridian opposite 
the point A. But for the parts visible, those most affected 
by reflections: will be the points B,:B,: doubly reflected by © 
their position in plan and by the form of the moulding.: Bew 
tween these extremes the middle parts C,.C will have inter- 
mediate values,: either as actual shadows or. as cast shadows,: 
observing that the outline C' with relation to the light,:is. 
symmetrical with phe parts C,:C.: There will then be symmetry 
of shading with reference to an axis of lighting for the lu- 
minous. parts and of the intensity of shadows, which will be 
the meridian A,: 

As for the straight mouldings D,. D,: their general value will 
be analagous to that of the middle values C,: C,; 

Passing to the lights, we see that the point. most lighted 
will be the point. a,: and then the generatrix a', &",: and that. 
light will become more and more darkened toward the tangent. 
m, me: But along the astragal the light increases,: for it 
strikes the cylinder more normally.: 

As for the plane parts,: abacus,: architrave and fillets,: they 
receive less light than the cylinder at a',a',and sensibly 
as at ©,: 0,: but the slope will be more lighted,: moreover, : 
each of these plane surfaces in shadow or light will be made 
lighter from top to bottom on account of reflection due to. 
the ground,, and the distances will be indicated as I have 
done before,; 

For the detail of each part the same reasoning is applied. 
Thus for the core,: a shadow is cast downward,: and at the 
same time an actual shadow above the tahsent T. The shadow is 
shaded by continuous lighting from top to bottom. For the 
ogee,: there are cast shadows 0 and P,: an actual shadow at N 
wivh reflections.: 

From the preceding will result a general shading as in the 
example of (Fig. 19).: 

But another element. frequently affects. the shading,: recesses 


+ ee hol 2) Che sa al ATs ay 
a 7 r , J j 
4 : ‘ 


Sh 
elqmie se nadd sedieh eyewle ei ezeoe1 A ‘senatioe{otg 10 
“neesel of e1edd exsoqys nolioel ier yas yleousees 10%» ,wobsde 
 elqmexe edd ni es .cheos? s nf synineqe ere Hove -.wobede odd 
) wo1g eatwodttd .(08.219) seine’ 20 ofdexwoo1d edd may? nexas 
| aeds sedish ed Iliw ancitoelies of eldtseeoos sael enctioet 
di ,ea(ttseb meewded sedsce eft 08 ,ewobsde dnoostbs eft 
4s %o ogi eds gettin <s0d0> enoriflthbom 16 eelosnce 
COR Hee ss ‘ Wwobsde [ateneh edd at 
| nf ase qqe edasq edd Jedd dowe ed bhinode gnibede edd te¥ 
bas enoiistegeexe on 6d Hives eveds :ytifeed at es ahtwadb 
. Ytseeeoen exe eidd t0% sedgute nismet biuode gntbsde edd 
Wee Yoo .Ratomemmoo ¢s eLebom boos bas .,edess [amo « 
. @gatwerb desw book to eqaigoidodq ,alebom doertbh gnivoad 
yet dues sgniwexb Yo aedavn dseak & andd ;berso01g yLiese ens 
‘etebon ors ea0d3 yhedetidug to bedgéisgododg weed evad emok 
= wietew | im ‘yhbaeletm dgonnso tend 
@iatd of baedetq Jom of I dedd Uinialo edate oels bluode I 
yd bebing 6d od Jasifigoxe et di 36Y -.celua emoe yd nemadtarth 
ati; oe od emece cifd 21 Vantantaed wi vifstoeqee. bodiem « 
pdidéte dads ebdlonce [lin ney. .xelamoo bane evoubigs s¢ 
a Pwo Jddd bos {beeooque es yrsinewe le oe don ef ga twanb 
ours ee ee sattseeltet doum ebneneb gi yess 
‘Qnigd woy dadd esiitiano [anoexeg bane ofieliva edd 
Be aeaeise ynsm tedte ylno ted: .esotesetqmi bas stoden 
«nea dofefoeotq ddtw obsa et aniwets « deeds ayawle xs6d 
‘-Sonibede yd‘enob ef gaicdiner edd todd bre 


42 
or projections.: A recess is always. darker. than a simple: 
shadow,: for scarcely any reflection appears there to lessen 
the shadow,’ Such are openings in a facade,: as in the example 
taken from the Procuratio of Venice (Fis.20), Likewise pro- 
jections less accessible to reflections will be darker: than 
the adjacent. shadows. So the spaces between dentils,: between 
consoles or modillions,: etc.,: produce the effect of a recess 
in the general shadow,: 

Yet the shading should be such that the parts appear in the 
drawing as in reality; there should be no exaggerations and 
the shading should remain simpbe. For this are necessary skill, 
a formal tasts,: and good models at commencing.; 

Lacking direct. models,: photographs of good wash drawings 
are easily procured;. thus a great number of drawings sent from 
Rome have been photographed or published; those are models 
that cannot. mislead. 

I. should also state plainly that I do not pretend. to train 
draftsmea by some rules. Yet it is excellent. to be guided by 
a method, especially in beginning. If this seems to you. rath- 
er arduous and complex,: you will conclude that. architectural 
drawing is not so elementary as supposed,: and that. on the con- 
trary it demands much reflection and study,: without mentioning 
the artistic and personal qualities that: you bring with your 
nature and impressions,: but only after many efforts. Remen-~ 
ber always that a drawing is made with precision and accuracy, : 
and that the rendering is done by shading... 


eh 
. “senniwerGd belaed-.¢ vedqedd 
Sh nent bas s10%~-< .[stenes ai gatwases .yaiemmye 
 werg odd sont ssolastonov ~~ .afebom To eofodGe~ anid teadea 
ele ‘sgatbeeo 
wed + boodatebas bos Setqeoos. af atvele beigos aves ofT 
Isoinadoem « od uniwaxh Snitewo!l.,em seaelg Jon eeob 
wisi wok .oTil [Lite to ydoetgodonyg od bluow [eebhi eacdw 
_ eae se evad od asmedtewh esoliidue odd 16% Laidnee 
ebautwarh 
-aeisqeorss stemiidnot brs bavototq @ [is to serit et gniwadd 
eit Bo eoneitifesini edd yo Lebom edé Yo diniga eridas edd Yo 
ppntnexs yievd .tnfese to dis giwottiib es ef JI -.nemedtath 
‘nofeess2oq odnt tatist s bas Jeeupnoo « et 
adie aise “~eonesiifesint to yLinemiag avow #8 ef sniweatbh aint 
J bas dogil s 10% .nsmedtesrb & od seven [fiw nosteq vaexilleds 
 lyeteves: bas eidon: al oQntwetb Yo ybuda ode ;botm [slolbiveque 
aS Ee a ; ‘~eind Yo baodivaos ed gexit cen woy bas 
Rooms fonlV eb einipe wed bre obpooebf ervuod edd ts evreed0 
») tebdrs Jeo dans blucoe woh .antwsib to seociquedeam reddo 
Bai | eeiasines tu0t act ved» dtetdit0g edd edem nem Jeet bas 
Sadao eddies noisjettwhs of d mo Meett boseergni 
i yoced & di al Thtew ef 3d to eener Jesldon edd ni tninarh 
x 2 sup 91 oe to :,eapbsootd ni {Itde to exenove sg \ .noltisaiverg 
ne ae /gemidonos «vishaoces evyawls .,esudiot bees to v3 vil 
aM | oll fretnteg eds to exoiand edd>,gniwerb nf neeitts edd yd 
uid igesh etew nottidre ysseq to saoitd exedt bre . oetw 
Oy ob .yisisnos ef 10 .wedd aeeanog oF obrsnoed yd sown 
“alton gid’ odjni duq seisis’ Jée12 add to Ivoe elodw edd ese 
s dora wond yidguvoieds oF bestorvs sonegilifeini sid 
cog dads to noiseoesog Lint edd yilenit bas. isbom 
ieline Sfi eemooed eonesivet josroes yas duoddiw [uoe exidnas 
Ho? ynoisecto e yloxd ei duvow éeodwi,vednisa edd Yo etuesesd 
OOLD Jsdw sud »,obmoooltD edd vine Jom at eee voy Jatlw 
y HYistevos bas vhs banotorg efd yd bessetoxe es done 
iS eee *~tent¥ eb obtsnoad Yo. 
i$ eaogorg of don et eidd .addbied omedd voy wode I 4T 
pebi ne ef tesef Js voy ot edsotbad ot ef Ji duds eis rsoy 
buoy wods of extesed I detit bad :.ed bloode gniwatb dsdw to 
ter it gi geiwesb Yo ybude edd dodd.,Jos? awondan Yliseupett 
is eotsoany dovn oele dud Aacaunattbieaks sal Jxsow se ile to 


” 


43 
Chapter 5,: Copied Drawings.’ 

Summary.) --Drawing in general.| --Form and proportions.: 
-«Satting.: «Choice of models,.; -- Conclusions. from the pre 
ceding.: 

The term copied drawings is. accepted and understood,: but. 
does not. please me,: lowering drawing to a mechanical function,: 
whose ideal would be photography or still life.: Now it: is ese 
sential for the ambitious fvaftsman to have a hisher idea of 
drawing.: 

Drawing is first of all a profound and intimate perception 
of the. entire spirit. of the model by the intelligence. of the 
draftsman, It is. the difficult. art of seeing.: Every drawing 
is a conquest and a taking into possession,.: 

This drawing is a work primarily of intelligence. An unin=' 
telligent person will never be a draftsman.: Nor. a light. and 
superficial mind;. the study of drawings is noble and severe;. 
and you must first. be convinced of this.: 

Observe at. the Louvre Giocondo and Leonardo da Vinci. among 
other masterpieces of drawing.: How could that; great, artist 
and great, man make the portrait,: that for four centuries has 
- impressed itself on the admiration as. the absolute type of 
drawing in the noblest: sense of the word? Is it a happy im- 
provisation,: a suecess of skill in procedure,: of some quale 
ity or of good fortume,: always secondary,: sometimes echoed 
by the attisan in drawing,: the tricks of the painter? Now 
wise, and these tricks of petty ambition were despised too ~ 
much by Leonardo to possess them. On the contrary,: do you not. 
see the whole soul of the great artist put into his work,: all 
his intelligence aroused to thoroughly know such a complex 
model,: and finally the full possession of that, model, whose. 
entire soul without any secret, reticence becomes the artistic 
treasure of the painter,. whose work is truly a creation, for 
what, you see is not only the Giocondo,: but what. Giocondo saw,: 
such as expressed by the profound study and sovereign senius 
of Leonardo da Vinci.: 

If I. show you these heights, this is not to propose them as 
your aim,: but it is to andicate to you at least as an ideal 
of what drawing should be.; And first I desire to show you the 
frequently unknown fact, that the study of drawing is first. 
of all a work of intelligence,,. But also much practice and ex 


bd 
yilees ol -.notdountent bas wmedeye » bertupes ai extiore 
gi eeassoo [Is ti  <Qntwarb at sermoo ge ai weatb of areas! 
Se «abedinil od bilnow solivbse ya ».boos otew ant 
Ysoous enoe tot obem adrotte elidshusl odd ylesanndiotal 
weib ai noidousient Isnoider bas otisnedaye edasto o¢ e160% 
 +gpeobi eaist bus exotre Jneicns maxi ee1t need dom eved gai 
eidd al :.ebodiem to bas esebi to eoneads afi asiter 10 
Liew at di eaeo yas ni eset 10 etom betoveli ed [lin soy 
-ievpetbude anoy ot woy ebivg od aslux somos evieoet of noy 
tg to bas mxot to noftasexqxe edd Lie to Jetit al gaiwadd 
tibede odni dent od +,doette dese od sedesd Jon of ,aeidiog 
ft edd et doidw.,moideisqetg sv0y to niadiseo anied st0led 
eae to ? et0dtsm dned 
) ems iihdee gute 5 to awebi yiemixc edd sotdsstecerg eidd 104% 
‘facteydg ota1 yiev s id eye toy ti ylaisived .oldsansqeibal 
— LLkw HOR wolaioeig to dsenptdani na se edeiso‘s ee ai tT 
owd 9380 oldevovst tedi ni ceve jod:,adive? scout bevee od 
bday cadtateg evldsegateo bas ,onc sadd tedied e18 eeedastan 2 
i Tharees moy saldd woy tadw i ,.6 ici ),008 Hoy dsdw Llordnoo o¢ 
renee od gniaseol ai wash od Satmisel dads tebzr03 sevell 
ved dadd blod,nedy ge doum oa aeayel s eseitqiva ant 
is 92 od ateed vino ow ;eurt ssom ei Qnididon toy yoas 
“wn de s evi I iseye offs to bus buim edd to Qnintats gnol 
2 mon? dnedeib etoetido ows s3el hase idgia odt no ee voy 
oy des viiourds ;sated s bus asm s elgasxe 102 ,1¢KJo 
a: tedd mentee ylovet ¢i yseBael edd ets0eggs doidw 
om Mg pees -,dwemiaegxe odd exteM .neotsdein 
| me i arash at eidd sot .,ese o¢ nisef eteteredT 
Ba iaxas emes eodel .aniddon et basd edt Io drow odd: po0e 
ee W),bned edd to ydisedxeb aidd etivpos of gideootsnerg 
Sse vee 008 o¢ Ratareel to? eofttve son, [Lin 
>a hagh eboege dsdid» medeye edd so omis edesw sevell 
a ob woy 21 -.kaiddon eedossd JadT .egnivergse gniydés 
Jon baa... stedesm edd to ebntwerb to edcarsododg od Ji 
ms &.emidvoty yasm os -ebsm oved Jedd .elebom aniwexb suo | 
i meg Ui bae:,daso t9deelq betdeil Llew edd mori 
elebom yeee eteT .ddgifquel yd ddgia 3s baiwssbh yd 
sf .tedles bas putot avo tiedd déiw elebow yLlent? 
Sc akhtedsuane eislenexd seven Jud» gaisslensad 
1 eonadsegel on to tjaiddemos vend; oF ebsem al Liqag edd 


> 


oo, 


44 
ercise is required,: system and instruction.: You really 
learn to draw in a course in drawing;. if all courses in draw — 
ing were good,: my advice would be limited.: : 

Unfortunately the laudable efforts made for some twenty 
years to create systenatic and rational instruction in drawe 
ing have not been free from ancient errors and false ideas,: 
or rather. tha absence of ideas and of methods.: In this respect. 
you will be favored more or less; in any case it, is well for 
you to receive some rules to guide you in your. studies.: 

Drawing is first of all the expression of form and of pro- 
portion.: Do not hasten to seek effect, to rush into shading,: 
before being certain of your preparation,: which is the impor- 
tant matter.: 

For. this preparation the primary ideas. of perspective are 
indispensable. Certainly if your. eye by a very rare physical 
gift is: as accurate as an instrument of precision,: you will 
be saved from faults, but. even in that, favorable case,: two 
guarantees rere better than one,: and perspective: permits: you 
to control what you see,: i.) ¢.,: what you, think you see-; 

Never forget. that learning to draw is learning to see, Noth- 
ing surprises a layman so much as when told that he cannot 
see;. yet nothing is more true;. we only kearn to see after 
long training of the mind and of the eye.) I. give a single proo 
you see on the right. and left two objects distant from each 
other,: for example a man and a horse; abruptly ask yourself 
which appears the larger; it rarely happens that you are not 
mistaken,.: Make the experiment,’ Ok 5 

Therefore learn to see, for this is drawins.: When the eye 
sees, the work of the hand is nothing. Take some days of ap- 
prenticeship to acquire this dexterity of the hand,: when years 
will not suffice for learning to see-: 

Never waste time on the system,: that. spends long months in ~ 
cbpying engravings.’ That. teaches nothing.: If you do copy,: let 
it. be photographs of drawings of the masters and not the odi- 
ous drawing models,: thab. have. made so many victims., But draw 
from the well lighted plaster cast,: and if possible commence. 
by drawing at night. by lamplisht.: Take easy models at first,. 
finally models with their own forms and reloef. Draming is 
translating,: but, never translate translations. Too frequently 
the pupil ils made to draw something of no importance on the 


rd 


a 


& 

ay Vem GE evelidvod “eefotexe ne ayents @i ¢i dedd Sxedory 
phoqhore Jeud Iptsdnret emoe Yletervoos wath of SiantPTEb 
H Yo.sseud enpiine eldetimbs eeodds es yrellah gnivoors s 


qino aso jaiw déiw goeinoo nt ylish ef [iong edt ti .edeea 
ijas edd ni bas  futitussd ed sesm efebom swol Vdi evarc 
Sean (6 . ‘ebanot ed yeds [ftw 
S18 smelt efi o16edw .2lebou neoie Yiev eoneieterg yd sa00dd 
| watodtve edd yd to emis yd bebanor xo niow gon bas sontieth 
>p od Iitwdtib eds eatwredio sot .nsefo ed offs blaode yout 
Soedd wi ate yléneuper? [fiw woy bas ,ietler att détw bobano% 
edd to siasq edd no elist tenb add 10%. ,bexebast ed oF mio? 
—xe 10? >,ddyil yienibio yd beddgil ¢aed ed biuode tadd\,lebom 
pee ee ‘absed ef3 to qod oft no olgus 
(yeu dotdw,fsed odd gniwetd ~.e.% tad odd to Aeeqe I ty8 
to web od eved {ltw poy veseis9 in0y Wi Ol) voy sefigrHE 
to beed edd taitweab vd yinO -sbeed ets oadst s]6eddax doen 
diepapeans: fi besoone voy tI -.werb of nissl eno nao ybod nem 
5 {fous « ahieebo od ysiy Yino ed Iftw #2 \.19em0N to sand od 
ye OF Qoinsse! at web od nisel od setusoed eyewls <eloenoo 
 eieienate gaiwath asedd sedted o62 of eedosed gaidion 
“yess  aatwarb ml -.eeberie etesifeh base visitsy efintte 
ed even nso wol .iniddyseve exe notdevtends bas aoldtogorg 
ee e ‘Hemesterb book ood 
e. bites od evewle dauw jatwetbh tu0y Jsdé Sha I sank 
join: Mo bas gnidoisih te aiceeetarg (eegiost Yo asevid ens 
ou edd bas batwetb edd Yo ydidoobi dud) .gniddoa &€! eisbeoor4 
“tae [ Baiwond yidguer0ds yd sonemmon ofl “.gaiddyseve ai fe 
vba dentl qiteneq edd qu sided of Séasdeant ad teven ;lebom 
lant stsdo eat fas febom edt to ytiasifsoeg edd evteedo ¥f 
we 1s 10: vii GE boodetebas od of BHiddowos BEY gon ob gOM 
kotwaerb HOY batotsmmoo. vestA df Qniweth ot [otLide sey 
etorgsa & Ovid tom: netdostif 10M onsfq tedéiea sanado 


q £7 


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in 
es: 


Mie woy ilebom edd je batonele gevi? dJsoddiw fioneq 
eat Tod te | pees adi ese soy nedw [few beed @ wath - 
Vite’ ORE ine ' sge@lbYorg eff Qatbnate 


es 2 aluarb ror ods widinadte eoivbs atdd welved wolf 
mi yslo deiom détw beseetqxe taiwath ef doidw (det 
ef ‘et YsivorMih vind edd has» [toneq to Lscotado 
® atinpos ot gecttive yldoiup esivesig efssit A 


ke. 
a phi: ae See ‘ae 


+s Yo nolisoube edd to eemooed Jsdw du@ -.o¢eD to eenendisoued 


ee 


45. 

pretext that it is always an exercise.’ Doubtless it may be as 
difficult to draw accurately some frightful bust escaped from 
a shooting gallery as those admirable antique busts of Homer,: 
Demosthenes or. Cato., But what becomes of the education of 
taste, if the pupil is daily in contact. with what can only de- 
prave it? Your models must be beautiful, and in the antique 
will they be found.: 

Choose by preference very clear models,. where the forms are 
distinct and not. worn or rounded by time or by the author.: 
They should also be clean,: for otherwise the dirt will be con- 
founded with the relief,: and you will frequently err in the 
form to be rendered,: for the dust falls on the parts of the 
model,: that should be best lighted by ordinary light,: for ex- 
ample on the top of the head. 

But. I. speak of the bust,: i.e.,: drawing the head, which may 
surprise you,: for in your career you will have to draw orna- 
ment. rather than the head.: Only by drawing the head of the hu- 
man body can one learn to draw. If you succeed in drawong well 
the bust of Homer,: it will be only play to design a seroll or. 
console; always because to learn to draw is learning to see; 
nothing teaches to see better than drawing the head with its 
infinite variety and delicate shades. In drawing accuracy,: 
proportion and observation are everything. You can never be 
too good draftsmen,: 

Must I add that. your drawing must. always be serious? Leave 
the givers of recipes, professors of hatching and of tricks, 
Procedure is nothing, but identity of the drawing and the mod- 
el is everything.: Then commence by thoroughly knowing your 
model; never. be in haste to take up the pencil; first careful- 
ly observe the peculiarity of the model and its character.: If 
you do not find something to be understood in it,: you are not 
yet skilful in drawing it.; After commencing your drawing,: 
change neither plane nor direction,: nor give a stroke of the 
pencil without first slancing at the model; you will only 
draw a head well when you see its face,: after sesing and under 
standing its profile.,: 

Now review this advice,: changing the. word drawing to model- 
ing,: which is drawing expressed with moist clay instead of 
charcoal or. pencil,: and the only difficulty is to learn to see 
A little practice quickly suffices to acquire manual skill-: 


| 
. 
! 


ro. Wee fe Pian ey ae eee 
o hy . : 


op | 
-evit yfno mem I .yteeesoen cf notdouitent nterxe ered Jud 
bh oF .reodourdent ewotvee @& voy ict anintesb. ,eotvbs [axe 
m bae hatwath exis to ddeq od ot ylerse bas ylwole voy 
F ce ticen © ““eteads) av0ey mto of mevodo slebom o1roted «tnt 
eMOLEUI9K09 
ebem ,seibste yrossiegetq avoy to ommesrz0rq edt ai aid 
| woth to 10 edth enti to Ioodo? 2 to boon edd duodtiw etedw 
[evedii [Is sot berispe: nolsourdent [sienes edT -.erutoedsi 
| 6itidneios Jsehom edd bas: saedwyne bexispos ed Yeu e19967R9 
“4aqysbod eteduyseve jdguss et gaiwerG .besotdaem noitoursent 
wog ei eoiodo dey ,ed Siuode dt jadw ayswils don ef £2 tE neve 
euoites ons Iuteen « batt eyewls ago nen taovoy edt bas oldie 
Pei ret Tl 
 yrsescoes di batt I. .betbhote ed blwode Jadw gantiste wed Th 
| lwon exntoedinvowsa yhadese od Jon poy eetvbs od 
dnadtogai yiev eeibyde yiodsisgesg of d eisd iehlendo off 
maid deintt sed? elif etiine amoy eermiai aidd.gntdeal Yt 
t @f eveottio hook 10% .noitqmuesig son eonetdsgmt. off 
Y. | yoone ice bos ytodeid ,ersdarstil at saltsisqstq asoitee be 
a gt setbloe beysig gnived evoig od eved dos ob eedabibaso 
4, GS omco {fiw woy 103 erntoedidossA ;,enoilsdiad Loose 
mdeedidosys tol onisrsge19 wedie bas>,betsegestig ete oY 
00 of gainissss steted exdoedidors ni notéexssys1g evad [iin 
hes ah | .eeibode ai ymonooe exes wmedaya Bas 1ebh10 .noidiaog 
elasstéssiosaco seviesivoy cnimexe,daiog aidd Je yIn0 
oad YE voy esisemieg ednemele ati [le @t oalseiscese wid 
ot ce ead beobni eis poy iedi [eet bas »,dit 102 edegd & over 
‘be Heels . ated coda seinwredio ,;besactgq ,seibuse eaesdd 
: dey ei evens sedefqmeo bated mort ws ef eotivbs aidt 
wad ‘spoy awoso I[[iw Jsdi . ecivbs lent? edd eroted yee od 
- : mt elsdil yseve-aso yond jadw yino dosed elootoe ad 
‘ad eltiiv yd. oigoeltex yd seviseiwoy swo roy dsdw od noel 
; mort Binomeriupes auoy to dizigqa edd yd ,Jiette besatdsace 
aL eoneioence toy bas sis ss0y 10l Josqeet yd ,zovieesnoy 
woitsesbal ffs >,dneIsd [is bos exbelwond [fs evey aatioutie | 
fd [low osti{se1 tud-~:teds moxt 181 .lavpe od blsow eliqna 
ng dro% boot e1s dedd etiid leiden yliantos o18 esedt Yi 
19GmooS gs ete dedi. ,2d8ida bexiupos ers Ife evods hue oals 
“s ex dsdw dives Ifiw:.detirs 18 28 | oY to eno dose bas 
= .8idd debrot aevel .ed 


5 


Lv vath M4 i ‘ 
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Si a me eee 
a) , ae ee ey) ea ee 


46 
But, here again instruction is necessary. I. can only give gene 
eral advice, desiring for you a serious instructor,: to direct. 
you slowly and surely in the path of true drawings and model- 
ing, before models chosen to form your taste.’ 
CONCLUSION,- 

This: is the programme of your preparatory studies,: made any- 
where without the need of a School of Fine Arts or of Arche 
itecture,. The general instruction required for all liberal 
careers may be acquired anywhere,: and the modest. scientific 
instruction mentioned,: Drawing is taught, everywhere today,: 
even if it is not, always what. it. should be,. yet choice is pos- 
sible and the young man can always. find a useful and serious 
mastere) 

After. statins what. should be studied, 1. find it; necessary 
to advise you not. to study architecture now! 

We e@nsider here the preparatory studies very important, for. 
if lacking,: this injures. your entire life.: Then finish them.: 

No impatience nor presumption.: For good officers is requir- 
ed serious preparation in literature,: history and science;: 
candidates do not. have to prove having played soldier in 
school battalions.; Architecture for. you will come later,: when 
you are prepared,. and after preparing for architecture,: you 
will have preparation in architecture before attaining to conu- 
position.: Order and system are economy in studies, 

Only at. this point, examine. yourselves conscientiously. If 
this preparation im all its elements permeates you,:if you 
have a taste for it,: and feel that you are indeed the man for 
these studies, proceed; otherwise stop here.’ 

This advice is far from being complete; there is yet. much 
to say before the final advice,: that will crown your studies:- 
the schools teach only what. they can-«very little in compar= 
ison to what, you. owe yourselves by reflection, by virile and 
continued effort,: by the spirit of your requirements from 
yourselves,: by respect for your. att and your conscience, If in: 
struction gave all knowledge and all talent,: all indastrious 
pupils would be equal. Far from that:--but realize well,that 
if there are actually natural gifts that are good fortune,: | 
also and above all are acquired gifts, that are a recompense,: — 
and each one of you,: as an artist,: will merit what we will 
be. Never forget. this.: 


| 


DeLee iescad lois ee 

ai ne icelikien abit eadane he 
ig ak event yd bevieret eyents exo, ¢ 
aga Woddw \,basl beeinorg edd emis emsa edd de | 
Rovin tat ib od a Piero edd eonemmoc won - 
cia Powe bev LOtAiwse  4teal ctecete BOs te: : 


re 


eae Piweors is ted ae oi 
HAS 0 ONS, ae ore - f+ y gl hey UF it F ' 
fa, naie eee ee wa Pity Shoes oh 


ae 


47 
I have thought. it useless to touch upon lengthy and always 
elevated studies without. an initiation into the labors and 
joys always. reserved by these studies,. desiring you to enter 
at the same time the promised land,. which must be merited.: We 
now commence the architectural studies,: 


aye 
7 i ae ¥: ser BRUSTOMIEG ‘JAAKSKBE 11 2008 | 

@ ernsoe! [eaouenl «= +.dnomedede Ist6neD—— “eYHAMMUZ 

pig. 1q dnonsete$--,omdoesisors Yo yrosdT mo e100 ed? 

‘m= ,endtdtogota IateneD =~ \.noidizogmoe Yo selut dee1D a= 
Lomed-~ -,8iled to enaisirogotd ~~ .encidrogosg oitioeg& 

~3o- eoneto? bat gad «- a.enaidiogetqg to. abere sit to 

‘fol a 


ee gi hs | 
. _,eantoed tiovk ‘Yo enneiil ‘Bo "pine ier «f sedged9 
30 etdoel Isiwausal =~ ,Jvemoteade IeseneDee .YSAMNDS 
At% to foods? edt gs exsdoedidors Yo yioedT no esis0? edd 
Seer oees 4). | ‘soumetzotq [etene® -— .edad — 
Lvtat gGltcs 
fo qiocesT Yo eexv0d edd to gnidibe edd e1]ed eomenmoo 1. 
Ro foofe2® eds js OSI conte sont eved I tedd .,erndoedi - 
pieta: pes ©! tet ek 
sgaadnesole, exon bebbs ot {lim exeds yreneeoea sevenedtl 
H eaanon oss Yo aebao eff, .etenntged Joees ef d 10% enoldees 
oxigen samrapnet edd taioshorges darit.,bewoliat ed 
mee wht bcted de cetiqesthoneds yd awob 
ude edd a osinxtbonc edd ylso ei swwdoel einf 
Sa atew bedads aelqioning edd ,soetidors 
Mid dads of \.doevetg soidourssat Jo evetesm odd Ife to Ie 
aiteoxe eeodd yd nevi sae bebisze1 ed yaa soivbs, 
igensiqxe nitsi1so, tatatsinoo dapotitis baa jeetbste 
Pa,ifet dt st oda Ber vied eatt toa, Loode’ edd ot¢.t8t 


48 
BOOK II,: GENERAL PRINCIPLES,: 

SUMMARY,: --General statement.; -- Inaugural lecture of 
the Course on Theory of Architecture, --Permanent principles. 
-- Great rules of composition.: -~ General proportions, <= 
Specific proportions, «- Proportions of halls.: --Corollaries 
of the study of proportions.: «= Art end Science of construct~_ 
ion.: 


| 
| 


Chapter 1,:Prosranme of Theory of Architecture,.: 

SUMMARY,: --General statement, -- Inaugural lecture of 

the Course on Theory of Architecture at the School of Fine 
Arts. -— General programme. 


I. commence here the editing of the Course of Theory of Arch- 
itecture,: that, I have given since 1894 at the School of Fine 
Arts.. 

Whenever necessary there will be added more elementary sug- 
gestions for the useof beginners, The order of the course will 
be followed, first reproducing the inaugural lecture as taken 
down by stenography.: 

This lecture is only the progtamme of the studies of the 
architect; the principles stated were confirmed by the approyv 
al of all the masters of instruction present,: so that, thes 
advice may be regarded as given by those experienced in our 
studies; and although containing certain explanations pecule 
iar to the School of Fine Arts,: I. give it ib full. 


¢h 
fA TO YAOSHT HO REAUVOD BHT 10 AHUTORI JARUBUAKI 
o> ggbOSI SS ABAEMEVOK STHA DULY GO JOOb08 Gh TA BAUTOUTI 
‘Yo tiedo aids fo solaesezeog anidsdt al ~~:nome lined 
-=foo ym Yo omen odd ai ef ydub tert? ym ersdtoedidorA Yo yo 
oem tietéised a seerbbs of ,Yleaym bas soviesssoy ,eenkac! 
s toesesebetc yu od tidaqaye Isibtes to [sisomsm g bas Slew 
ae. Ea « ‘ents iligd baombad . bueist 
qqe oJ benisel eved ndtdoertb eid sshow betbude evaed, vol 
1g ‘Hgid Yo..vdwb Yo sem odd: ,daitas bewsees odd mid at gisto 
end of yisesooen estiilauyp [fs 10 .eonetizegxe bas eonegilis? 
‘se to ytileup jedi IIs ovods besaeseog emusiliud> Jdjoettdors 
SoH -.,gnidosed ni ylistoegese has exsdwyteve encaicetg ),ydiogs 
902 ndiess¢ s ditw.enotéibards esse at gu tdyuvotd asm s eaw 
'@acitsonn? sid otnt ddgno1d of euddt bas ,ydub Yo evol ),ybute 
S66 sew notioveh aids seveinatioveh edwlozds ae r0eesetarg to 
ius aid bose eftanq eid ,esibuse etd bevel ed sensosd. aid +64 
e6%q Ifiw soy Jedd nisiitoo me hue eveilfed I: nemeliaed 
Wis Blwode ee dove eonstdwiemes « mid Yo yiomem [utddiat 2 
Bese eved odwi,nem set adetias to adised edd at niemes 
-aney ntcbebis eved ofw:.ednomyotne otdeiias odnt soy 
HY edd to edatéiise odd voy exem oc Jdguoe eved odw > not 
ee esol exidemeig odd tot heseeigxe stor1ge1 esodTt 
we y dodd .,Jorbe4 Ienoateg es ¥d ynsqmooos Hinode I ,omual 
ee! ) ‘mid gantbeeo 
ar wa Boe. yanidd I dedw yvinielg yee of wodenso yo at Ji 
‘,oted me I ydw ylqnite edste of soy od 
Peisactst: jnnteaesgq jemusiLind «.M Yo diseb edd tedtA 
eo -ebmekyi j;om of obem etew enciteesgue efdei0ened yt 
1 beeooue ot das biwode I Jedd deieni at betieeh esugsel 
yi aetieds ne: etmobuds > nokdoutseni yeddo bad I .dy8 
bisa IT i.deenpe1 dsdd exsm of beniloob bas of gninntaed 
ie 1 s,semeliast .beebnt bas ",tleeya Jnese1ga son bivow 
‘Lionsod soiveque edd du ;eoslg odd tot ileeyos hetetto 
pisos 6dd dol edabibass 2 sneeotg of Sdbix wo sed Loodod 
Pd Batlifequos dzomie gud» .mid anisivenoe duoddiw beebad ~ 
Y ylieat’ I (tedésm aidd wo beaotdeoup yleeol) ,yraeseoen 
m of bedasibut yiveelo LiennoD actieqs? edd Tt Jedd» betla 
eb fo. 398 a8 ,looio® efi to issreini edd of Citin?.ed ysob 
biyow 1, | dbedgqsoos $d OS goitiiosass bes .atotted ad act? 


we ei sed: te Viilidiaaogaeg ada nom yia6 oft Dtove ted 
| Ne 
AAS: PURE 5 at 


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49 
INAUGURAL LECTURE. OF THE COURSE ON THEORY OF ARCH- 

ITECTURE AT THE SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS NOVEMBER 28,5 1894,; 

Gentlemen:-- In taking possession of this chair of The- 
ory of: Architecture,: my first duty is in the name of my col- 
leagues,: yourselves and myself, to address a heartfelt. fare- 
well and a memorial of cordial sympathy to my predecessor and 
friend,: Edmond Guillaume.: 

You, have studied under his direction, have learned to appre- 
ciate in him the assured artist,: the man of duty,: of high in- 
telligence and experience. Of all qualities necessary to the 
architect,: Guillaume possessed above all that quality of sa- 
gacity,: precious everywhere and especially in teaching.: He 
was. a man brought up in sane traditions,: with a passion for 
study,: love of duty, and thus he brought into his functions 
of professor an absolute devotion; yet this devotion was: easy 


for him,: because he loved his studies, his pupils and his art.) 


Gentlemen,: I believe and am certain, that. you will preserve 
a faithful memory of him,: a remembrance such as should always 
remain in the hearts of artists for men,: who have initiated 
you into artistic enjoyments,: who have aided in your instruct- 
ion,: who have sought, to make you the artists of the future.; 

These regrets expressed for the premature loss of M,. Guil- 
laume,. I should accompany by a personal regret, that. of suc- 
ceedings hin,.- 

It, is my custom to say plainly what. I think, and I owe it. 
to you to state simply why [I am here-.: 

After the death of M.: Guillaume,: pressing,: friendly and ve~ 
ry honorable suggestions were made to me; friends and col- 
leagues desired to insist that. I should ask to succeed hin. 
But. I. had other instruction,: students,: an atelier, and from 
beginning to end declined. to make that. request.: 1 said that "1 
would not present. myself," and indeed,: Semtlemen,: I have not. 
offered myself for the place; But the Superior Council of the 
School has a right to present a candidate: for the office,: not 
indeed without consulting him,: but almost compelling him,: if 
necessary. Closely questioned on this matter,: I finally ree 
plied,: that if the Superior Council clearly indicated to me a 
duty to fulfil in the interest of the School,: an act of devo- 
tion to perform, and e secrifice to be accepted,: 1 would nei- 
ther avoid the duty nor the responsibility .: Phet is what oc- 


a 


vate F; os 7 at eal cil ‘ LJ 7. 7 “\¢ hale Th 
a * - @ 


t ae oe 
» gattsaptecd ot evontasay esw [fonvod soitean? of? bor) 
‘efauctvetg sao od¢ asdi asoliteg exom seve ,.de0g aidt tot om 
 tebedosot vinistres asm baa betoaod yliserg 2am I. .beiquose 
| pe ndtalaal HOY etoted ts9qge won, bas beyedo I 
eaey oF yee, oF boon don of ylaisdit9eo I ,ertessed gauoy. yu 
oy nOigonagenti nobasds I ob, texge1 bavotorg.diiw yino sedd 
jo gaed wont volt .atsoy evileyioews asdd o10m t0ot t9eiliets oAd 
| -w0m odd si noitoutieni sotlodA .ai agnidosed aid’, jadw Lis 
) @agis eotudeel to eeeevco [fe jnoitourdent otdelidis, berisp 
) peteget (itte bivow adaA omt% Yo Loodo® edt tud. .rs9qaeath 
| setetiets edd tuodtiw foodo® edt eviaonco, tonnao ono elidw 
oy bas’ ,gatdoset oiteatias oldatesev 26 nottsounsent gedT 
A onfH to Loodo® edd at efoyotmelH odd to)llew tedt sto 
sa! tosketoig odd setietse odd al .etodastavy bas atoaagoe 
| setsiosl to.,acisedtee eid to ,ysoods aid to togasm otul 
go 10110 To easo nt sot astqot¢u eh bas aeenhbiod sid to aeve 
igepeoen s ai ossdd .ysilididequooni Yo neve to J1eq etd 
~ot bedinens Bf »s2eelq dou, seob anidoset aid Ti sevideotrt 
aeete 618 ebladwo axeilods edd ,stdaebute emoa Yo oxudsn 
panes: “gossetotg" Siow odf ;,2tedasu to eotodoe sved voy 
oodoe x90\-,teblets edt io beet ait adsagiasd yliegorg 
fo efidt wydilenigizo Ons 1t9tos1sdo (sioega ylotivas 
2 «isto Yee eonsat ai, Jaoteotg od sove bas eloodoa 
Esowi sea insbasoansid - ,aolioutsaat solseque ditesed 
hetiexs ae oved soy doidw to soitourdeat aidd a0} eomen 
2 - i “vanspegaaae awo adt asd adiA emi Yo Loodoa awe 109 
+ 6: Bria Heouelteqxe me ei r9desm edd ote .noisovaiseat 
idegxs . eeibuda, woods Snigivbs  ,2dnei1t gasoy ali 
atwods .ydeobom ealei duoddiw | madd didiw sadaJdiaad 
Nap ‘aL at sebat? of alist ono ydw move bas,bni2 04, ».se08 
e ee tequed tiedd woud deum ,aLiqug eid to dweitt t6edlo 
femedsis0one sheen -eno Jadd yooim Yo nist bas serdd 
ray iisiteet odw fue bedeug od blucda odw yyitteves 
es Ps vambics simmetas etooibem « e1oted"boos ytov at sadT" yas 
low i atoted "bad yrev ei dad?" sedt»,asetgorg adi . 
906 yterogas? 3 awode dotdw jad »,cem1ot, odd asdd t9dt 
fxg of ‘stoddgs adi Yo viileaosteg add gnivebtanco. 
i dd ten od »~dnobude od¢ Yo e1tuden edt ao eoivbs eid 
| agisa edd oldsulav acdem Jud) setydisdedua ton 
of Sao, "ine dua dose (d betelto asoisoe 


ue 
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a 
a end at! 0 ee 
rhe’ ee ES a ae ee 


50 

curred. The Superior Council was unanimous in designating 
me for this post,: even more perilous than the one previously 
occupied, I was greatly honored and was certainly touched.) ; 
I obeyed and now appear before you.) | 

My young hearers,: 1 certainly do not need to say to you,: : 
that only with profound regret do I abandon instruction in 
the atelier for more then twenty-five years.) You know best of 
all what this teaching is.: Atelier instruction is the ree 
quired artistic instruction; ell cousses of lectures might, 
disappear,: but, the School of Fine Arts would still renain,: 
while one cannot conceive the School without the atelierse) 
That instruction @s venerable artistic. teaching, and you have © 
on that. wall(of the Hemicycle in the School of Fine Arts)pred= 
ecessors and guarantors.) In the atelier the professor is abso- 
lute master of his theory,:of his esthetics, of lectures given, 
even of his boldness and fiis utopias, for in case of error. on 
his part or even of incompatibility, there is a necessary core 
rective; if his teaching does not please, id unsuited to the 
nature of some students, the ateliers outside are open,: and 
you have choice of masters.) The word "orofessor" does not, 
properly designate the head of the atelier. Our School has an 
entirely special character and originality. While other 
schools and even the greatest in France may claim for their 
benefit superior instruction, transcendent instruction,: seek 
names for this instruction of which you have an exalted idea; 
our own School of Fine Arts has its own teaching,: friendly 
instruction. Here the master is an experienced friend to guide 
his young friends,: advising them, studies, experiments and 
hesitates with them,: without false modesty, showing how to 
seek,: to find,: and even why one fails to find. He is an- 
older friend of his pupils,: must. know their temperaments,: na- 
tures and turn of mind; that one needs encouragement,: another 
severity; who should be pushed and who restrained; he will 
say "Thet is very geod"before a mediocre study,. that exhibe 
its progress, then "That is very bad" before a study much bet- 
ter than the former, but. which shows e temporary decadence,: 
considering the personality of its author. He primarily bases 
his. advice on the nature of the student,: he neither deforms 
nor substitutes,: but makes valuable the natural gifts and ree 
sources offered by each personality,: happy if he has formed 


and lor ee ee a 
ar) | er 
= te 
onteds to atatygos toddien e318 tedd ,adaebude sasteitidh yrev 
ae stedasm tledd Yo you eshsim09 
udtlanp eno Ullsfoegqas hetiuport ai notiogadant eidt tol 
+ fas @ od Jaum todasm odd dedd+,oudtiv on0 .éneustequed eno 
_rfel ).ggtdosed oliai¢is on ed ago aidé juodttW -.adt leet Yo 
p,tfeadt datvel Jeaum wesltaudiao gud. ,ecittue soa eaob tne 
| .@idabaetrt odd ytseaveoou ei. eteds jrotsnagxe misw bas dash 
moo otliae oved of dnebuta odd gntanso. .beaatéaes yosatle 
» @ig.soqs tasoo weo od awoat of Jods tetasm eid ait eouebhit 
w20dt yd adtolte atd tot bebiswe1sed [fiw ed teadé | gadaoba dea 
Malies i ‘mid ebteed bae bavote 
zead vot .,e9 oF awond Stee ak Iebew odt Yo gatever of? 
Rid aids Yt yeagntantged fanatsaoo. olstaim [uv lworree \.2¢ 
yai2a to} ,t0eddem on »,audgyet2 te t9odsl s aeito at actaata 
P ‘ bas \,adisiavom atetaasit Jedd dite? edd vd beanisdeue ef 
thee) | te2dseqg daedgid oft to notaneoes a43 adtmtegq evan 
Woy dotdw at, fvtdidie? sattqghtoaeb aidd don 2 ,nemelined 
6 seisioe! saodw,,eisieam tvey bestagzooet ylatetteo svad 
be BP ui fet ite afd: * Thevol 
a ee eae hasotoig dtiw dtef I mottouttant tad? 
sf patie: sOftoteds e19en ton 2@i aidd woud HOY .dsdst beontv 
to a dauodd adotoerg Ytouom a -ddgvsord I tf gatvaal a0 
| w teed van belLitiat gnived to ..vltmst ym tot Saa stil 
. ‘'staitovebh bas yile 
iRaserood at setges eer atated won me I. aeaeldaed 
ad bivode tedw. as oF begkido tarttt wae bae evs 
| ley saimoo edd 10%) .o3ae1¢s moor yem aoattaeup eAT 
fon dot) to sem yd oted mevid seed acd bas .ateey vee 
ega I «-Jey bas :»borletidsdes ed Silvoda soisthers ad 
ted qidteaeraa! ms e@ bayoiww Leet I ~-ayewls es won yl 
ie Re ‘ a Sn ort. whbedse1o od ot ai eatuoe 
do: ae. mest at eatu0e aidd dedd .at yilootttib adsl 
) thatinoo s ,Jjnistgeet s gaisooed Io 19$086 ai at ow 
ot ddgia @ eved atedaan ivoy Jedd >,sottoursant odd 
| 2 a on ats Gt todd .,2t Loode? aso Yo ydtisatgino off 
* aud dt ot beineh ai yiileup aid? .bliow edd at Lex 
$ tdgts tied# besoelzen aaivad 10% aselsduob » sem 
rte paasan todseme1 10 fi baodde tedt ategsettg 
to etal boot @ ,“aeotregA as yliaooes Snes -,aidt miele 
nptoaton ats, shan od ylasotgxe eget! o3 esse odw 
ee a 


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very different students,: that are neither copyists of their 
comrades nor of their master. 

For this instruction is required especially one quality,: 
one temperament, one virtue, that the master. must. be a man 
of feeling. Without this can be no artistic teaching. Tale 
ent does not suffice,: but. enthusiasm must lavish itself,: ar- 
dent. and warm expansion; there is necessary the friendship 
already mentioned, causing the student to have entire con- 
fidence in his master, that. he knows he can count upon his 
students, that he will be rewarded for his efforts by those 
around and beside hin,: 

The reverse of the medal is well known to me, the weakness-= 
es, sorrowful mistakes, continual beginnings; if this high 
mission is often a labor of Sisyphus,: no matter,: for Sisyphus 
is sustained by the faith that transfers mountains,: and al- 
weys permits the ascension of the highest peaks.) 

Gentlemen,: is not this description faithful,: in which you 
have certainly recognized your masters,: whose lectures you © 
loved? ey 

Theat instruction I left with profound regret,: and I am con- 
vinced thet you know this is not mere rhetoric.) 

On leaving it I brought a memory precious through my entire 
life and for my femily,: of having fulfilled my task with loy- 
alty and devotion.) 

Gentlemen,: I am now before the course in Theory of Architect 
ure and am first obliged to ask,: what should be this course? 
The question may seem strange,: for the course has existed for 
many years,: and has been given here by men of great worth. 
Its tradition should be established, and yet». I speak plain- 
ly now as alwayse-- I feel around me an impression, that this 
course is to be created. 

Its difficulty is,: that this course in Theory of Architect- 
ure is in danger of becoming a restraint,: a contradiction to 
the instruction,: that your masters have a right to give your: 

The originality of our School is,: that it is the most libe- 
ral in the world.: This quality is denied to it. by some Frenche 
men,: doubtless for having neglected their right to instructior 
strangers thet attend it or remember sitting on its benches p! 
claim this, and eecently an American,: a good judge of freedom, 
who came to Europe expressly to study art schools and select 


shtea> .yidasce eid 10% oldatovat taom eeobi odd egotw [le at 
-somfs sese eaods mort L[oodo8’ «voy aedatsgnideath sadt"~~:9% of 


| belevers seu, bed ad--"siitesA baa basfgal  ,yasared .ylast 


_ gatteors ed¢,mobeert otuloeds edt si"-segord twodgvordt 
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| «09 omos to sonerdmemet [snoateg s timieg .,nomoftaed t04 
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=toiash sesd joa di bed ,otmoo need eved sdgta ded? .¢nove as 
Zee of Rafddoa oved I -,bedse1o asm aoidedias wi eexnos B ,auO 
fottentasxe ytoelaqaos etseto of betteeb asw si dud s,¢edd Yo 
® tieeya bas 2obsimos exoe bass,ag bettoxe dad? -.eotsoddeo at 
40 tedatata odt to conethug as oatagise yd stedwowos hontad 
is eonetbedo tot miti yrovo,.tetbies blo ss eew aH ,etaA eatt 
said Ti jbeasvoath ed bivos aeletw aid tadd bedetsotas doum 
~fsdateam A .at)edio ydbeteaygua ton 908 awo etd stew sadaltw 
3 aael tat om bodsbimtint ,Aas1t etd saw ted 10% +,.s9aat% to 
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Sot adaiiqs edd Yo notgtien odd at eotiedted " -~:yee 
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NY aaiod nuogdnas ett s od dosd ev edet bivow ,aolitedtes 
ne OF aodws [feoe1'tdgia etoble ivo deidw tnd ,elqoeg 
109 od yiesssoon saw Jio--naiseinuso & t0o+-daendaloggs 
. baie jee © 4 ®ggoteeetaoo to Sisoltidsves s gatwods yd 
ws hevisset aew anotdevidedo aids jedt°edsds blvoda I 
re doftgo di enoittsatmsxe efj ylleait toy ,eldtazog as 
et dud», Ife ta tivem edi ertaeb fon ob 1 san090° son 
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je dads bed I:tt bas! jenitgoob 10 aotgtie: aéste e to 
eto1g 28 yshos woy ao exogmi ods toa et ti ,dasbute 
g) eotdredil. toy dostis of dite to ealttoob atsda 
ee Joedtes Ot» Ao ce atom geve sd bluow ¢f tot. ,asel 


4 


if at iysoedt ai eesuos odd to veansh edd ef beebwt etdt 

rors qua edi to beodivnes ylgno1te cot setiqa as to ebned 
ud betebdes asivioe odd to ,ealatoob 8 to soaelisoxe bas 
0as Brees od etseggs itsdw vlovidedirzoddus gatdosed ai 
0 ‘Lantateob oof smoosd ylteme tdgim gt dturd 
yen 2 ae enim {fatedt{ yleduloeds i909 at tok 


> ' e! he he P t 
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alin 
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i naa +t ae  -yatedeem as0y to mob 


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a ee ee 


52 
in all Europe the ideas most favorable for his country,: said 
to me:e--"What distinguishes your School from those seen in 
Italy,: Germany,: England and Austria"--he had just traveled 
throughout Europe--"is its absolute freedom,: the treating 
of the student as a man with the right to choose his master 
and his artistic course!" 

But Gentlemen, permit a personal remembrance of some com- 
rades and myself.) At a time when ovr School passed through 
an event, that might have been comic, had it, not been dangere 
ous,: a course in esthetics was created. I have nothing to say 
of that,: but it was desired to create compulsory examinations 
in esthetics.: That excited us, and some comrades and myeelf ob- 
tained somewhat by surprise an audience of the minister of 
Fine Arts.. He was an old soldier, very firm for obedience,: and 
much astonished that his wishes could be discussed,: if his 
wishes were his own and not, suggested by others. A marshal 
of France,: for thet was his rank,: intimidated me far less than 
an artist of worth, and in that audience I allowed myself to 
say:-- " Esthetics is the religion of the artist. To insti- 
tute with us a state doctrine,: state esthetics,: compulsory 
esthetics,: would take us back to a time unknown to us youns 
people,: but which our elders might recall,: when to obtain an 
appointment--or a commissione- it was necessary to commence 
by showing a certificate of confession.” , 

I should state that this observation was received as badly ~ 
as possible, yet finally the examinations in esthetics did 
not occur. I do not desire the merit at all,: but if 1 relate 
this anecdote, it is to show you, that, already while a stu- 
dent, here, I had a feeling for liberty of instruction,: a fear 
of a state religion or doctrine; and if I had that fear as a 
student, it is not. to impose on you today as professor a 
state doctrine or faith,. to attack your liberties,: and still 
less, for it would be even more singular,: to attack the free~ 
dom of your masters.) 

This indeed is the danger of the cousse in Theory; in the 
hands of an artist too strongly convinced of the superiority 
and excellence of a doctrine,: of the service rendered by him 
in teaching authoritatively what appears to him as thesole 
truth, it might easily become too doctrinal and too personal. 


Not in our absolutely liberal School,for if necessary for me > 
: 


? Py | &@ | 
# 10% Yisezedes ton ef fi) e1udoedidois Yo y1oedd s to deege 
a a sonetettib edd je1stoedidors to yroedd ym to Asega of 
: ‘stedsogrot ed gon [fiw bas sidia 
, Tatemoh ym od Ifiw neds tedtl 
aedaco ‘od ye to af dtsdt [is 101  ,oldstastnoont at iadll 
big Sesasduoo ton ai dadw jasugeetioo ym to atemoh edt ai 
| Yo bus: edadisbas ysm I tedw at:,wod edé bas ydw odd yliai 
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fay. tave 


mitadifiupes oe Eg af ai oliseslo 

i sedw ‘gnkarsdo gemiteson eats eofiges bas yous? ylaiadied 
a riage gnididtdxs sedw oldsttogqusai --taelss yd belt! 
at, Isaoaseg cod eis atetiem onenT -,dneled juyodiitw eaned 
ee se ed daum nove soitgso wt bas ,2nidosed ni sqe520 
at at etodt .eothute [sotaerlo yd bexivpos ylao otgol 
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a « deg aids .sigtonitg s mot qitisdassom tiea a'ano 

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pateo.es aditem Jedd [fs at faetaas(9 .esbaditeal to to 
aio edt .foodee to yasaveso oaks ot doeqset dvodtiw 


ee to iv aniswe: dedi [le #i Isoteuslo ofl .3t r9daigzer 


1. Jab eme1 jsd? [fs ,ad18 edt to aelgauide Laniede ed ni 
H 


qtoaixg eldstisvat emsa edd amiitacs gromiadsg adt 


<amtot te 10 
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a ae 1 hee : hat. : ee. } 
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foes te Xsettey estaitai as davosdd .medaya bae oigol 


a 


55 : 
speak of a theory of architecture,: it, is not necessary for me — 
to speak of my theory of architecture; the difference is sen- 
sible and will not be forgotten.: 

What then will be my domain? 

What is incontestable,: for all thet is or may be contested 
is the domain of my colleagues; what is not contested, espec- 
ially the why and the how,: is what I. may undertake,: and of 
which I may speak to you,: which subject is still quite vast.: 

As. for instruction,: my profession of faith is very clear.; 

I am firmly convinced that in all things,: particularly in 
architecture,: the primary studies. should be essentially class- 
ical.; To be classical is not to bind one's self to a party,: 
to be exclusive or to proscribe,: neither is it to close the 
eyes nor to restrict the course taken, but to place as the 
basis ef the studies the elements consecrated by reason,: loge 
ical traditions,: a firm respect for superior principles.: The 
classic is in stable equilibriua.: 

Certainly fancy and caprice- are sometimes charming when just; 
ified by talent-- insupportable when exhibiting merely pre 
tense without talent.: These matters are too personal to not 
escape in teaching,: and in caprice even must be a basis of 
logic only acquired by classical studies. There is indeed a 
happy license, yet this must be conscientious,: and to free 
one's self momentarily from a principle,: this must be known.) 

But this fine title of classical as a definite canonization 
in art is not an affair of origins or of dates, of centuries 
or of latitudes. Classical is all that merits becoming so,: 
without respect to time,: country or school.; The classieal 
does not decree but, imposes itself; one can only verify and 
register it.; The classical is all that remains victorious 
in the eternal struggles of the arts, all that. remains in pos- 
session of the admiration universally proclaimed.; And all 
its patrimong confirms the same invariable principle,: reason, 
logic and system,: through an infinite variety of combinations 
or of forms,.: . | 

The classical is not the privilege of any time,: country or 
school.) The classical is Dante as well as Virgil; Shakespeare 
as Sophocles; the Soir ob the Vallon,: Rolla or the Nuit ad’ 
Octobre as much as the Cid,: Polyeucte or Athalie,: and for us 
it is the Parthenon,: the Baths or the Amphitheatres,: St.: 


ae a as lila A 
—.- 


be 
 egenist eosl(so ,teteo% 442 to nou -.32 pened orto ro sidgo? 
| _ afidg bas beosd edd seed eyauls ead dows bad .ervuod edd 10 


1 hatdatss dedi ai soate :,foodoa aso Yo aoktqoonos [eaidgoza 
poy 12V0 eblsetg od beguots eta ,d14 to aoeddageld odd at dotdw 
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leege betigaal to astaeslo buargy eaadd IIa 

att Ratwoda diuoddiw esudoodiders editoeebh tonnage ano sal 
dud) aotesooo mo 08 ob of oved fede I jeneiduiove leotvedatd 
dud) <toljsasloxe as ai ytodetd sevtexex Jasdiogai aidd dtin 
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of lybude {eoitodaid 6 to adimt{ ed nidédiw atutosdidois to 
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amtitaoo sedi yiodath .exystoatidors to atnemalfs odd One ale 
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wa .guinodsus tiedd gaitdentost (i eeonseaiena: ,doslageu atedd 
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ae sad%8 edd tot 

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of dh So [foodo2 edd t9dtée equbotg of bewellis ad toa 6 luow. 
seat ed adosido yscloesdors tot ,eas0 da Raibbat edd to 

i pad iders Igosttooni ots yods dedd agosigisdasm olisaia 
Wl -4f2 idiw avosnsiogmednoa od o3 bexluper ysbos al 
sfois fa Ylotvem wou beords af bas .VYk einvod diftw sor 
807 losne [sofgoll{i to notsiaiqshs elivres s ,notewsiqxe 
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ay edu LD ‘ed¢ Yo adnemertuge: miebom yloitine add of biog 
wo0%F ed¢ sents 4 eoslsd  ,esonastataupos hfo batt [fiw 
Baidsyteve .sbhtoom0 sf ob easl% Yo ehsuaclod edd 10 — 
18 astisdI .ydifiviee r6jsetg 10% atetl[e1 edt o¢ nave 
ta “neve bas ,cusa oft exsdwyteve ,dseqer ot wod awond 
bio as dts at beae a8 dgud>,yidasoo Lwtdigoy 2 
aud bas ,tloadi betoeteoig aed enols eonatt 


ee 


ws 
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errs 


4 


Sophia or Notre Danes: Stes, Oueerer Sh; Paton PRIME Farnese 
or the Louvre, And such has always been the broad and phil- . 
osophical conception of our School,: since in that, painting,: . 
which is the Pantheon of Art,: are grouped to preside over your 
studies the incontestable masters of the most varied schools,: — 
all these grand classics of inspired ages! 

Yet one cannot describe architecture without. showing its 
historical evolutions; I shall have to do so on occasion,: but, 

) with this important reserve; history is an explanation,: but 

a misfortune to professor or student, who restricts the study 
of architecture within the limits of a historical studyl To 
study this history usefully,: must first be known the materi- 
als and the elements of architecture, History them confirms. 
the sane studies,: exhibits climaxes coinciding with the ace 
cepted discipline of principles,: decadences fatally expiatigs 
their neglect, renaissances illuminating their awakening.: But 
for these. without that. necessary preparation,: the history of 
an art is no more than that of archaeology.: Thus isolated,: arch 
aeology,: that should be the auxiliary of the arts,: may be 
their most formidable enemy. The question is grave and indeed 
merits a ery of alarn,: for it is a question of life and death 
for the arts. 

For a century and in the entire world,: arts and architect- 
ure have been in a condition of anemia by their subordination 
to archaeology. Had we a Raphael or a Paul Veronese,: they 
would not. be allowed to produce edther the School of Athens 
or the Wedding at Cana,: for archaeology objects to these ad- 
mimable masterpieces that they are incorrect! Architecture 
is today required to be contemporaneous with St. Lois, tomor- 
row with Louis XV, and is abroad now merely an archaeological 
expremsion,: a servile adaptation of illogical anachronisms,: 
like the epoch furnishing the model for imitation. At Munich 
are conceived utilitarian Parthenons; at London, to corres- 
pond to the entirely modern requirements of the Club,: you 
will find old acquaintances,: Palace Farnese, the Procuratios;: 
or the Colonnade of Place de la Concorde,: everything copied 
even to the reliefs for greater servility.; Italian art only 
knows how to repeat; everywhere the same,: and even in America, 
a youthful country,: but. as aged in art as old Europe,.; 

France elone has protected itself,: and thus there is still 


J) elie ee 
RE 
eddy tebny goslas solfiat deomis eved ow ¢aY Ifeodos donesd «6 
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) <) ‘Snew yods Jedd oc@ ton bib aestiaylod bus aglooed3 4380 
“to déia? smsa edd bas noisibaoe elivies emsa edt alt atedioxd 
PAPA -, ‘sna taordosna 
yyorg bas neea oved letbintnsiia wo ~-adelixe bfod .yLligasl 
\ bas ,vtevil gataasdo ni tatienoo ion ago eonohbusgebat tad? 
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yet.) oe) cae Ilyvdotes cove .vstiliiret .,eatil 
babies iliac ine re aotdeiehtanes seed oxtasdqae I 2D, 
ai ace {vO ,ViIstsaoo edi ao jan antbeooig guiddyreve youtesh 
dota @ \egsdiied-s ets sobidsxsilivio se dae skangast avo edi! 
org oldatirs eied I tu& .2eitsineo gnitawh betetides yaomiriag 
I bas (adeivianlexe olftaidts: ateddo Lis aAtl anotigéaoa 
did . shay 1 senea g etever bas Saatd dtod dstiw ni dididxe of 
fae od dom edd to% mtelo I tedd >» ,isetasslo Stow ed 
893 bbude 
iy y A eno [esoitdasvnoo s Jedi bas .yiao aotitoitdaes eno 
Hos | i” oes a6 so} yliaqgsd » atedeen agoy to edtow edt Sao 
vill _— ts duds etudut ai Isolaselo esoosd ylso toa ILiw 
Ss & doanss atotoutéani Jedd bastavebas biuoda wel .y¥sbod 
sig to atzow oft ga0ms 2elqmsxe toelea fon bluode 
)beavoos ed of daiw toa aeoh 192esto1g edt eausosd 
ees sofaieon fisde I asigqusexe ya si otolodedT .saneont 
cevby sail ico hanes Yew eaol tevesedws,dimil [eauden ood dad? . 
di 2 ino toelsa [iede 1 jaoisourdeni aeoy bas aeis 
eo a! deb: yd e1oaesoabeta q50 ebsm ybeetis eeodd to adaiow | 
etoquednoo y{isidnsdedua dtin atoe{dae alst1eo tot ant 
t #1 ode yiedtgqaed edd ,foodoa edd as dona» ,anaisulos 
ene: edd mott wortod of yierseoen 
foos? ak eertiod edd lo tiatige edt af aidd ,womeliaed 
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— - 


ee 


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7 Becta s: Aah re 
: i hie tae 


55. . 
a French school! Yet we have almost, fallen asleep under the: 
air pump.: At the beginning of the century, the only esthet- 
ies was to first conceive a Roman edificee-at least in inten- 
tion; then this bed of Procrustes tortured modern life and 
requirements.; A little later was, substituted the medieval ar- 
chitecture of a civilization yet more different from ours.: 
Between these two purely archaeological camps was a bitter 
war; Eteocles and Polynices did not. see that they were 
brothers in the same servile condition and the same faith of 
anachronism. 

Happily,: bold artists-- our masters-- have seen and proved 
that independence does not consist in changing livery,: and 
our art has gradually freed itself from that paleontolosgy.. 
All hes not. been uniformly happy,: but all efforts toward: that 
end have been fruitful,: and today we know and proclaim that 
art has a right to freedom,: that liberty alone can ensure 
life,: fertility,: even safety! 

If I emphasize these considerations, it eertainly is not. to 
destroy everything preceding us;. on the contrary,: our art 
like our. language and our. civilization are a heritage,: a rich 
patrimony gathered during centuries. But I hate artistic pro- 
scriptions like all others,: artistic exclusivisms,: and I seek 
to exhibit in what both broad and severe a sense I understand 
the word classical,: that I claim for the motto of our 
studies.’ 

One restriction only,: and that a conventional one.’ 

Among the works of your masters,: happily for an epoch,: some 
will not only become classical in fututfe,: but are already so 
today-; You should understand that instructors cannot and : 
should not select examples among the works of living artistsp 
because the professor does not wish to be accused of offering 
incense.: Therefore in my examples I shall restrict myself to 
_that too natural limit,: whatever loss may result for my theo- 
ries end your instruction; I shall select only among the 
works of those already made our predecessors by death,: except- 
ing for certain subjects with substantially contemporaneous 
solutions,: such as the school,: the hospital, ete.; It is there 
necessary to borrow from the living.; 

Gentlemen, this is the spirit of the Course in Theory.) 

Then what will be the divisions? 


Piet et 


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bas Ulbavototg o10n ajaomele of3d gaiybude yd eonem 
idfverq 2éncwole emaz odd »,nctdest teqsob s at bas 
edd eewtionce sasibude rs0% to tatantbed edt te bat 
joreo. @ ddgmet dee1g de nisgs aedem ylot]em emof Js yrs 


i nee uta 
> ete ie 
pot 

om yy 


j Me eet 


pad 
s eetee "5 "Si fooded edd of notawinbs’ owt tiieg 
capa f ey T,ctwddedtdow to etnomele seeds asf3A 

daoo at en “saat¢inogmoe to adnemefe edd miod 


Pn 


 goatdua edd weve zaw eqedieq tedd ,gatddeomoe to gat. 


+ 


—. 


ae) 


56 
These divisions appear to be indicated by the nature of 
things. In the School of Fine Arts are students at; all stages | 
of instruction, beginners §ust admitted yesterday,: those 
of the intermediate stage,: and the veterans leaving the School 
tomorrow, All degrees of advancement in studies exist,: and | 
this course must be addressed to all,: with nothing too. ardu- 
ous for beginners; as for the veterans,: they can hear every= 
thing with benefit,: which will be especially addressed to them, 
as well as the first principles,: that they will be interested 
in recalling.: No art subjects are to be disdained,: however. 
elementary; what makes elevated subjects is the elevated fash- 
ion of treating them; the elevation of the subject is in the 
height, of the intelligence of the artist.) 

I believe that. the division should be this:--after. having 
established as concisely as possible the general and invari- 
able principles of the art,--principles identical in all the 
Sreat artistic epochs in spite of the profound differences 
in external forms,--the architect must first become acquaint- 
ed with the elements at his disposal,: the arsenal of archi 
tecture. He composes with walls,: doorways,: windows,: piers, : 
columns, vaults,: ceilings and stairways; all these are ele- 
ments, which I term the elements of architecture.) This appears 
to me as logically the first part of a eourse,: and I believe 
that on these matters only apparently modest,: interesting 
things are to be said; not that I. may say then,: but they are 
to be said.: The matter is very elevated,: 1 repeat emphatic- 
ally; nothing in art may not, be high instruction; nothing in 
the study may not be elevated.: When the most skilful among 
you obtain the grand prize and go to pass four years in Italy 
and Greece,: what. is first done in accordance with the rules 
of the Academy, wise rules made by men with a profound ac- 
quaintance with the needs of artistic instruction? You con- 
mence by studying the elements more profoundly and intimately 
and in a deeper fashion,: the same elements previously stud- 
ied at the beginning of your studies; sometimes the pension- 
ary at. Rome merely makes again at great, length a careful draw 
ing of something, that, perhaps was even the subject of his co! 
petitive admission to the School. : 

After these elements of architecture, I see what I shall 
term the elements of composition., Composition is the combine 


| 


Xe 

_ -8t, e2odw.es1sg dnotettib edd [ie to yderléae os a notde 
| ra09, of, gaibnedexg etoted awond od bilwede ensem bas eeoiyo0a 
4 ye ‘eYderisae a8 mods mott axem OF  ¢sGai po20q 
hadwond to sotithbaeo so ylao ylivutesy easoqmoe iLiw woY 

_sideov .,200id10g inetettib edd od yew tedw.allsd snarsttib 
etoitedni .wnotliveg,ebsoat a to aysd sis tedu,.ote 20 lud 
efgmsxe fulidused to wetv to jatog ofd mott ton ,atolisixe 
e80dmoo voy aed ,tia to stemob edt wi woud teu voy dotdw 
Feids ed of epbelwoad af dguone doia od ot wtesaeoen af si 
bids od gaum soy jalebow [stidused deom to ygolsne odd [leoer 
| ,0¢ evol biwode I tedd [led 6 at otok" .2evleatsoy of yee o¢ 
ad to 10 .,20ffisateY to alisd edd Io ietosiedo edt nit agtaed 
wtiede afdd jomssod edd to to eottesl to eoalsd odt to ellsd 
| te advegeD to eostsd edd to dadd of avogzolens ed bluode yan 
edd eved Bblwoda aoiliveg aidd jatiad at Ieyod sealed edd to 
rele edd 10 ,eb400n00 el ob. aea[4 avo. to ezods to shatilqua 
wmitebat b{uoo I “.ewoh és gitelleous0 edd Yo s2edi to soued 
6 dadw woda od egt}ae" yodd dud ,2elqmexe eaedd ylatifum yf 
pierre: a  teftekdteoqmoo to edneusle odd 
od estworg doa, ob. 7 tod. et%eq btidd « ai etedd .yllenlt 
a. | bevteae: t eqsdieg. bas dssv o8 ed bluow dt :3i so dowod 
vs) hg eesig agi Jedd bas ,erotiets edt at 2ietasa am0y 
: Hee. I tadt aeetuoo tedéaut teum I> .y1080dT ao ears0s 
Dm 3 oT Saazetg js isdt,asade evidedaet s at ysbod soy 
vt eis EpapetHoo aid’. to .daesxe edd bas adinil edi stasf 
i om iis. kp s9T8Q8IG 
, sao: eo Lis gead asel, sébdens windtan baidd aftdd>,18evewoH 
qnoo, so eeottibe,to acatisgmoo edd od bluow ~~aols 
40? ,e1dsedd & to eumetgomg odd antisl .erstoetido 
wpitne wi asw stdsedd.edd dsdw voy [led biwoo I TE 
| £ gt jedw bas,emid awo awo gaidosorggs edoogs jnete? 
; 99 bivoo I Tt ,seivemA bas egoiwid st .,eosetl at 
eup. aids: to dnemedsde etolqmoo ods voy s10ted esalg 
ao ion, 03 ys2 Sas di daini? jos biluoo 1, ,estseds edd. 
ott um ton 2% e2idT Sersceds s oxem bluode goy wod 
|b foua"= :00y, ot yee bluow 1 -.ytoodd awo ym ed bivow 
ime svbe to etade edd et sidd one yt9tism edd Yo. 
dei bute gon at bag anol oc beset esd, tadd dorssa 
308 pawoy leoxe yem voy eqadzeg bas nist asoy ni 
itaeealane bilvow suedoa dasv a dowa tot Jed 


i ¥ Api A ee 


57 
ationin an entirety of all the different parts,: whose re- 
sources and means should be known before pretending to come 
pose, ise-,:to make from them an entirety. 

You will compose usefully only on condition of knowhag the 
different hells,: what. may be the different porticos,: vesti- 
bules etc.e,what are bays of a facade,pavilions,: interiors and. 
exteriors,: not, from the point of view of beautiful examples,: 
which you. must know in the domain of art. When you compose,: . 
it is necessary to be rich enough in knowledge to be able to 
recall the analogy of most. beautiful models; you must, be able 
to say to yourselves,"Here is a hall that I should love to 
design in the character of the halls of Versailles, or of the 
halls of the Palace of Justice or of the Louvre; this stair- 
way should be analogous to that, of the Palace of Caserta or 
of the Palace Royal in Paris; this pavilion should have the 
amplitude of those of our Place de la Concorde, or the ele-~ 
gance of those of the Cancellaria at Rome." I could indefinite 
ly multiply these examples,: but, they suffice to show what, are 
the elements of composition. 

Finally, there is a tkird part,but; I do not promise to 
touch on it; it would be so vast. and perhaps isreserved to. 
your masters in the ateliers,: and that its place is not. in the 
course on Theory.) 1 must further confess that I am before 
you today in a tentative state, that at present I do not know 
just, the limits. and the extent of this course,: which I. must. 
prepare.; 

However,: this third perte- nothing less than all composi- 
tion-~ would be the comparison of edifices or comparative ar~ 
chitecture. Taking the programme of a theatre, for exemple, 
if I could tell you what the theatre was in antigquity,: at dif- 
ferent. epochs approaching our own time,and what it is today 
in France, in Burope. and America,: if I could collect and : 
place before you the complete statement of this question of 
the theatee, I could not finish it. and say to you:+="This tis 
how you should make a theatres This is not my part, .for. it, 
would be my own theory,.: I sania say to you:="Suech is the state 
of the matter,: and this is the state of advancement of this ré 
search, that. has lasted so long and is not yet finished, Seek 
in your turn and perhaps you may excel your predecessorse)" 

But for such a vast scheme would the entire life of a man 


8 t j ‘ 


| 88 
f ‘byte eved of | wood od YIseaeoes ed node Ji HluoW Toottive 
ob of Shstne Jonas I {gatdtyreve besmebnoo bas besylane 
Yo tewog s to Jon dud: enotineiat book. ym to bervess ylao 
“yas to towog sit at dom aqedteq ,notdetdaeonoo sibeqofoye 
en0 bas |,tebtenoo I dedd yslvotYtib deat & ) etowteddtat 
a emeshon eagso’ of etnten a Yo ei sadd Iw@iretem dauods 
Y te eomesdsa end af ,etsesem aiedteo g wit sotseaesiaod 
dee geeisoo [sisdoetiders edd efides,ylsuons islwante = ye 
soremon baed js eved .yisaseoos dud ers saedd etedw :,aloodos 
| Won ob I t,acttoelloo on esd ytoedt nt oatvoo a0. ,agaiwerth 
anes qtoegeet dedi ni exvoee nao bas ,oh o¢ me IT tadw word 
, edd at aoidjowrdent ¢add,voy of eteate ot begtido as 
| peel Somten  Slaolttib ylemeidxe od {fiw ,df evieonoo I as 
a a6 efdtaiv yrev yd ,eleoe egasl ds ekniwaxb yd wode 
yleduloads eved sonnee soy tel :,woy of yeaa o¢ stteobh IT tedw 
Wedeega ov eved {fede I detdw to ,yiowem at eeoitibe edd [fs 
on etsJe neo I tedw eeviecet atsdseo ditw sea so¥ 
} ‘ot Stiesh gon ob 1 -xediaut .eatwoo ya to emustg0rg 
2 eved I ‘eonsvbs wi bersyetq atnedaos to efdest « of tloayn 
“8 éaevos. 1 “uOyY ddiw dese of i gniddyiave yrs bas ybude 
Jo rns SOY sedt {fiw _ vaees at ies gattetto » .Jibeto ald 
i Fa Pblene eh) i ‘dduob 
es + to La tibesiats edd telgex 10>, ytoodT at ‘eamsoo eft 


weeup dInsdiogmi asddons aeattqmoo ,ytoedT to 9 
etarfov I daddy eoasttoqgmt dove to: 2emmetgotq edd 
Parent Apctatas awe awoy ed od evet{ed IT eidd bas 
odie edd aso weumetgo0% edt Yo nottatege1s edd 
fost aetbiude iw0oy ao Jjoetts tneasmteg bas eldsiuh « evsd 
co sts 4 reeviete ot beiizeh eved I nofiseup I[stigso sidit to 
vn $ bevieoes evad woy etoted .ervtoel Leivguent atdd 
=) ‘Rulddemoe eved I eevgoed:,em yd beaaize smaetg01g 
taqiue emoe [eel aqedisq yam soy bas ,dostdus sedd 
00 #08 a91Tt6 yom ¢edt.,zommetgo1g acivieos1 wo deew 
pete “seviteoet od bamothvooe 6%s soy evsods mort tned 
PyIeve baa Giver ITih 2t ommstZo1q boog e exsm of 
+t el eted? .eemmextoiq to settee hoot s eden of 
J od ndiduedie Ynsianoo » yesebt 3 eonenpea #1 ,med. 
p dountbras esn0 Pe eee edd Hi eetbude to edede 


wet 


onan 


58 
suffice? Would it then be necessary to know,: to have studied,:— 
analyzed and condensed everything? I cannot. engage to do this,s 
only assured of my good intentions, but. not of a power of ene 
eyclopediec concentration,: perhaps not in the power of any oné.; 

Furthermore,: a great difficulty that I consider,: and one ale 
though material that is of a nature to cause. reflection and 
hesitation in a certain measure, is the absence of drawings.) 
By a singular anomaly,: while the architectural courses in the 
schools,: where these are but accessary,: have at. hand numerous 
drawings, our course in theory has no collection.; I do not; 
know what. I am to do,: and can secure in that. respect; but. I. 
am obliged to state to you,: that instruction in the theory, 
as I. conceive it, will be extremely difficult, unless I can 
show by drawings at. large scale,: by very visible drawings, « 
what I. desire to say to you,: for you cannot have ebsolutely. 
all the edifices in memory,:of which I shall have to speake: 

You. see with certain reserves what, I can state will be the 
programme of my course,’ Further, : I do not desire to restrict 
myself to a table of contents prepared in advance I. have to 
study and try everything,: to seek with you; I request a lite 
tle credit, offering you in pledge good will that you cannot. 
doubt.: 

The course in ‘tabeb ptt rather the functions of the profess 
or of Theory,: comprises another important question,: that of 
the programmes,: of such importance,: that I voluntarily say,: 
and this I believe to be your own opinion, that especially by 
the preparation of the programmes can the professor. of Theory 
have a durable and permanent, effect on your studies.: Because. 
of this capital question I. have desired to present before you 
this inaugural lecture, before you have received the first. 
programme signed by me,: because I have something to say on 
that subject,: and you may perhaps feel some surprise next. 
week on receiving programmes, that may differ to a beep! ex- 
tent from those you are accudtomed to receive. 

To make a good programme is diffieult,and very difficult 
to make a good series of programmes.’ There is required a sys- 
tem,. a sequence of ideas; a constant attention to the general 
state of studies in the School,: and care to direct them to 
that side on which exist gaps and deficiencies.: Yet with all 
these reserves,; I. will state my mode of thought.” 


ot ge Si a al 
oe! 88 , 
vod soiJonigetb edt [oodo® ino of dedd evetled 1 ..acemeldmed 
yilepbers need sad eeeselo baoccea odd has daxti edd soewd 
@nwetvy to tuo da0f, need eed ti egsinegq ydoum oot beost 
d3 djedé .saluoidueg si acidiaoqmom Yo ysdé at seslo sertt 
od bebitaoo sefbudea odd Ile yd aoiisrsgerg to eno et. bae 
W evetog of eeths bas wollé? voy Jjsdd. guaoeeetorn, Ist 
daiog Isindostciders edd mort aoidsisgetg 6 e180 Jeetast2 
jor Yo setbude yd cels bas ednowele [eoisylens YS Jextt wey 
Jo wie nevig eeams1z01g aisdieo nee eved of -.sdoeto1g deteb 
edd ait beebat 10 ,eeeeelo bnoses bas teitt eft of yledented 
eit dud qdaadtogmi o10m oLidil s ezew Josjexg edd aasflo Jaait 
sogmt ati yd betsesen Jon ai emmstgoxg s to. ydisoeittib 
| Yde» efqusxe tot .,ecee Jon ob 1 bas ,berevoo sors edt yd 10 
aetese as 2i totideath « Yo ytio Yeido edi set [led ytio « 
st sedT adnonttegeb s to. Isiigss, edd 103 ex0 neds ommaetd 
jp I benoidaem Jani, soitsieqerq to weht atdd ditw sonsbhoo 
saisgetgetaied 2s agsio bacese edd Jo veommsigzorg edd baedared 
¢ voy deenpet base tebtenoo Iliw I gaxil.soidieogmoo ad yi0d 
Maeda ednomelo [esidylens to semmergotg edd om déiw bieget 
viet seiieee eumsoo edt to soldiog daxti ‘sidd od gnibnogees 
eee b) tent ucewetmtosdinosrs to ednomele odd voy od benisty 
i Vo onpaagiopeh Ai egnoiditequos [exeves bled gaivad seJdiA 
| yd dite1qg bas ..goy ivods dool od, oxteeb I. etnemele 
dé 08 -bas eelvqmi baaxg odd vf doidw..,saibude Jo yiiaum 
; Dida ensite eeedd wond, vem soy vedd .,seifedse edd Yo sill 
sit, edd ai gomidemoe 2xu000 a8. KEVe  ,Toee@loig 1WEY 
sx od wor aise! medi"==:soy od yee od evad Jon 2906 
‘get ‘Vidontdeth seviearwoy Lisl “!wobain s to yew 
fade Ngod voy edem ot dom ef anoldisagmoo ezedd to eaog 
181 ig odd at ityaedesw ot soy extotexe ylesem o¢ 10 exood 
3 | sH0y Yo eleitedsm edd to egbelnonk esd .Asmmets 
id ¢ ayre eetbuda nee ala adjoeidue besoisajiaet..,2el 
i dar eade a 98906 %R 
| exer medoe fore hcpehamn nt enotdisgeqmoo edd tot eA 
esa as wi dom a-ei sofidaeini ym >+.easlo baooes 
brides nt eduloada aniddyas ed donnso ereds 10% 
ie aioe etedw ),etoeidue elguia soy evig yiilseteses 
1 te eno yd dgeoxe ).bed ed od seonado ynem ood eved 
seavaliadsan voy dexoea caodw enotinedat hoog Jo sne 
mesons etom at gniddon > .yifeait ae Shvere? 


lag 

craig 

cra, erty 
7 oR ty = 

} a Ago > ila ; 


— * 


' i eK in, ryt yous a ¥. 
‘ ; ‘554 & | 4” 
) ae ae ee 


59 

Gentlemen,: I. believe that in our Sehool the distinction be- 
tween the first and the second classes has been sradually ef- 
faced too much; perhaps it has been lost out of view,: that the 
first. class is thay of composition in particular,: that. the sete 
ond i is one of preparation by all the studies confided to spece 
ial professors, that you fallow and agree to pursue with the 
greatest care a preparation from the architectural point of 
view, first by analytieal elements and also by studies of ren- 
dered projects.: We have seen certain programmes given al- 
ternately to. the first and second classes, or indeed in the 
first class the project, was a little more important; but, the 
difficulty of a programme is not, measured by its importance, 
or by the area covered,: and I. do not see,: for example,: why 
a city hall for the chief city of a district, is an easier pro- 
Sramme than one for. the capital of a department.; Then in ac~ 
co#dance with this idea of preparation just mentioned,: I. un» 
derstand the programmes of the second class as being prepara- 
tory to composition, First I will consider and request you to 
regard with me the programmes. of analytical elements as cor-= 
responding to this first portion of the course in Theory exe 
plained to you,: the elements of architecture. 

After having held several competitions in the analytical 
elements,: I. desire bo look about. you, and profit by this com- 
munity of stn dicate is the grand impulse and even the 
life of the atelier,: that you may know these elements so that 
your professor,: even as occurs sometimes in the first class,: 
does not. have to say to you:e-"Phen learn how to make a door- 
way or. a window!" Tell yourselves distinctly,.: that the pur- 
pose of these competitions is not to make you copy details in 
books or to merely exercise you in washes;it is the primary 
grammar, the knowledge of the materials of your future stud- 
ies,: restricted subjects but, complete studies will be the pro# 
Srammes,’ 

As for the competitions in rendered projects,: always in the 
second class,: my intention is-~ not in an absolute fashion,: 
for there cannot be anything absolute in making progresse- to. 
generally give you simple subjects,: where sketches do not, 
have too many chances to be bad,: except by one of those phenom- 
ena of good intentions whose secret you have,: and that. foils al 
foresight; finally,: nothing is more painful for the student 


tede & of etinom ows tot beit ed of nad tOssetorg edd bas 
m@qaeo ef¢ sotd- aruda woy nedW evil of shew ed sonase ted? 
) nedw.vse od om wolfe .eedodeds eeodd %6 eno dtiw aoitdti 
@iorg isoy to clos edd s,tt exed od bao dofdw yd ton enond 
howe Saebude edd bas .iuintsg bus aselitnasds yidixxod sexoosd 
= gode yilais? $uidéemoe of rodsl bas [liw boot wid setigq. 
Da ainda seibuda edd moit siueet nisiveas s beebat af exedt 
bib bas devgeib to datz edd af ysartdnoo edt no duds .dnemeouey 
‘Yo semmatgorg exeds eriseb I bated tedéo eft 10 .dnomegetsos 
om ogni yoy steidini<od emmésa « to od of eeslo baoose edd 
92 weed esd jsdw [lew neon eved voy Jedd bass. vbudea basotorg 
ledw yleie etom bheeootq of dud test oe wool of don ,tsiad mf 
jvoedd Yo Roteesg odd isd of | voy bsel yen eeelo bnosea od 
iloybersgerq [few voy timbs {Liw sari? edd to blodsesdis 
tibyde edd sow sot bas ,eetbyde Yo dmemgiupe os dtiw yhsortls 
sooe wet evad fiw ,ceitidequoo [ent edd diveet dotdw wort 
ppesetetese, boniddemes esdoieda oft toi sien of etiseb 1.308 
oon te enofdees edd al einoe]e yivegorg ytev dedw od 
eng Beteiniag ebatsioo a0y see aOY -.etedqinog Yo 
etd t6dne bos odizetuhs 10t sised besesg eved yond 


rds Nig disper sis yedT -.o4 Yneks mort betinper gnidniag e. 
“cao & wath od wod ntse! o¢+-.cuptins edt bas owisn Y 
nod . os of emis eneevedt je tnd :vomté gaol se eeist 2idt bas 
4 agatintag exten of Jon», neidiieoqroo of Yileubet, wedd 
aitliw yvev [fete I bas ,jnef{leoxoe ei eid? -.eedodede 
ng a8 foivisogmos Yo eenmatgorg eeslo baooes edt nt voy 
pas. <OBCcMoS od HOY modawoos Od :.2edodetea Yo vommety 
; bs ‘eatin sder ni Sfeaym ot Qniyse s,eselo tettt edt rot soy 
“a /6viewds dinece even soy doidw nd noliteoqnos evitoe 
it a wd yduol %0 beltoge need jon eved sisod eviews seodd 
9 | som ond sot bets od ton ILiw yoy Jeom Js has .iLiw wey 
aie. “s9TtI Yo efdsgesoni noisiteoqmoo 
ms Jad em od etseqge di», ,eeato Jetit edd v0? eA 
| Feeds 4senna7g eeihbude deri etevaiel s gataxee! 
whov gatteege of aninisdds ylfantt,enotielenard eld 
8 val odd diiw sonsbiooss at beatorexe od [Liv soy 


dtdone sto einemele edt Yo eghelwond ~-yeeibude avoy of Yts 
ogwo Jo ylieni? 0 hh ai to etnemele eft to em 
os ' | ‘stlesdfi mois 
Honea ce uaced +s0t od afdd ysa oc berised eved I 


Ps 
Vins 
Re ow 


An 
- ?) ‘ 


ae, 


ocd 


Va, 

2 ban! 
/ 2 
4 
< 


60. 

and the professor than to be tied for two months to a sketch, : 
that cannot be made to live.: When you return from the compe~ 
tition with one of those sketches,: allow me to say,: when one 
knows not by which end to take it,: the role of your professor — 
becones horribly thankless and painful,: and the student. ap- 
. plies his good will and labor to something fatally abortive. 
There is indeed a certain result. from the studies and an ad- 
vancement,: but on the contrary is the risk of disgust. and dis» 
couragement.’ On the other hand, I desire these programmes of : 
the second class to be of a nature to initiate you into more 
profound study,: and that you have seen well what. has been seen; 
in brief,: not. to look so far,: but to proceed more surely where 
the second class may lead you,: so that. the passing of the 
threshold of the first will admit you well prepared,: like men 
already with an equipment. of studies, and for whom the studies, 
from which result. the final competition, will have few secrets, 

But. I. desire to make for the sketches something analogous 
to what very properly occurs in the sections of painting and 
of sculpture. You see your comrede painters admitted here; 
they have passed tests for adaission and enter the School.; Is 
a painting required from them? No.: They are required to stud- 
y nature and the antique,.to learn how to draw a figure,« 
and this takes a long time,: But: at. the same time to accustom 
them sradually to composition,: not to make: paintings but. 
sketches.: This is excellent,: and I shall very willingly give 
you in the second class programmes of composition as prom — 
Srammes of sketches,: to accustom you to compose, : to. prepare 
you for the first class, saying to myself in regard to a def- 
ective composition on which you have spent. twelve hours,: that, 
those twelve hours have not. been spoiled or. lost,: but. spent, if 
you will,: and at. most. you will not. be tied for two. UomemEme G a 
composition incapable of life. Re 

As for the first class,: it. appears to me that as the student 
learning a language first studies grammar,: then atbempta lit- 
tle translations, finally attaining to speaking or a volume, 
you. will be exercised in accordance with the method necess-= 
ary to your studiesj;-- knowledge of the elements of architect- 
ure, of the elements of composition, and finally of composi- 
tion itself. 
' IT have desired to say this to you,: because next week you 


4 ' « ( jie wet ae “a ae A * ‘ oe Dae a. ae | il ad PS v - ot Biba ) oO sae 
| a ola Be ire. 


ee : ta | 
siden ot geinatged vmod Ilfitw sszeds yeommsirg0iq evieoes [iw 
sgesio bnooes 443 ni etuetuse edd baa ,commergosg Loodee 
Hs to noidizoqmoo edd 101 emmsig01g 6 sxoted eeviesseds bait 
pol <ieetuqise Yd vedas mods doin don ob Fudadd 08 »,s0itibe 
pe eee se cadbore} etsgetg oe ,someliney ,stdd wood 
qd ebsm emmeigotg odd soveded¥ .nemelined brow teddies? & 
-qleest%th sseqet-ionaso I -4ét of gaidiemos bbs Janm soy 
_ ‘efld neended bser Jann voy Jedd j3aiyse Juodiiw eso} the 
a _¥tb eyeuls edd sohised jemmerge%q edd to ebhrow bas weati 
ebeen-edd ‘his voy mort bebnemeb ednomesinper odd To gnimen 
 pdgiveaseog aids gatbostesobas aids ef exeds sbettatsee od 
ocsrengedtal ‘otom Yldnoupert ak etqixosdeog [fe exil doidw 
reed deum ob soy [Ie tedd af di predisl eis Yo ybod edd 
bas evol edd déiiw Beibuse has besoqmos ed tusm.,Jas 2o 
, hae > d3a esos tadd [fe au xaoma dadd yates Yo aol 
ngoyeds ,oisso%g sts eommaxgo1g 110 .éngeo Jon es0b doisee | 
3. bbs  woy sot~al Ji yws0t siedé of eeivsedio ed yleorsoe 
% eras. on sso 1 doidw ,ddvoy woy bas yiseog medi 
i yidnoy sHoy- squaidioed jon ob jate%8ed ganoy yo IdA 
“i - age gata wads yilui evelieS tynof ood deal son | 
evele ns eved bivode voy sadé yeeibode {fs to evel seen - 
i eveiled box geidd adixves di vet >,d18 mwo0y Jo sebt 
ities Og \,femsiineD:.nwo thoy af doidw 31s two to oad 
ne ¢ 0 » LLiw adeisas oa ose erend: doidw scodstw aouditv 
Sah a i ae ‘. “ia . 
ee ete 
BA. or 
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sis , esa a Seale 
ad Be pie tr 


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61 
will receive programmes; these will be my beginning in making — 
sehool programmes, and the students. in the second class will 
find themselves before a programme for the composition of an ~ 
edifice, so that; I. do not. wish them taken by surprise.: You 
know this,: gentlemen,: so prepare for it.: 

A further. word,: gentlemen, Whatever the programme made by 
me,: you must. add something to it. I cannot. repeat diffusely 
what goes. without, saying,: that. you must read between the 
lines and words of the programme; besides the always dry 
naming of the requirements demanded from you and the needs to 
be satisfied, there is this understanding, this postscript, 
which like all postscripts is frequently more important than 
the body of the letter; it. is that all you do must be a work 
of art,: must be composed and studied with the love and pass~ 
ion of art;. that amonds us all that lacks art,: and artistic ree 
search does not. count, Our programmes are prosaic; they can 
scarcely be otherwise in their. form;. it. is for you to add to 
_ them poetry and your. youth, which I can no longer do.: 

Ah! my young hearers,: do not bankrupt your youth; it will 
not last too long! Believe fully that, perseverance is the 
great lever of all studies; that you should have an elevated 
idea of your art,: for it merits this; and believe in the fu- 
ture of our art, which is your own.; Gentlemen,: possess those 
virtues without which there are no artists, will,: pride and 
faith! 


aw 


ae | eee 
go 
. eHJSTOUIAS PMITOBEIG «.S ARTIAHD 
ed? ~~,se{omr0t Iscivemun mort mobeext ~~ .YSAMMUZ 
od =~ .ddotd dtiw ydidoebi edi bus eidoedidors af Intts 
ae Listeb of {arenes sort .ersdoedidois asi motdteaguoe to 
= «edemifo ,cintbasorwe .bnv01k .oclsdsood == ,emmsizarg ont 
~- ,exudosiidors yd beseeigxe sotsjoutdenoo al ddaxf 
: bene edd bas ysilidesea [eireteaWd «~ ,ehooder ls? 
to weaeds - stdi fio 
eet oa 
_  evad I. wuthatad anicihiantanes ed yen studoel [siugweni YM 

De saoy to notisvele airline edd cee soy etd oF Jdguoe 

 -etom .,bni lee? bedsevelo sion ddiw noiteees dsdd diel poy Ti 
eR Abioeet : cebedeasw don eaw omit yu ,ediguods enoitidne 
fsnlatanee es te21 26 ~~ voy ot atsiqxe ad ezogatg I ysebot 
ude awoy ntevog eyouls binode tedd eelqtoning Iatenes ef? 
2 Xétas edd vacliaamiushes 0% evicareg ed oY ottaeb I 


dita ty 


Jomoe Ot2 “Seite gto AHOoy ye idseds 6 ac woxrtoRed 
aa. bedimifl sas eedie avoy wiblrow semidenos | ered 
ane v atid -syadauos oft ai ytis bas cert so ..ydio « aidiin 
a shee pet ae, udifidixel Hoy al edeeto of yieseeoen af 
i i aod bas ysb ineesexq edd Yo eaihude eaedd hacyed 
eons 86s Iie at te savoy to dads yybude taensmreq base te 
shah baa sous: Iset edd ef yhute aidT -.sevieais0y Yo bas 
Bs j/efd,to. niemob ena ef #2 :atodel qsoy to yiian edd 
7 bas. poidsvlae ,2eebind Svoy od [fiw doidw., benoliaem 
at yestseh s.vyd aiged ep dol, gideg su0 segqo od jaxkd 
ume ae sdon.os I dedt. voy Iled ef hoon ow ai ei0edT 
oa evil cerns ed et)edd i¢diedw,.erebie evpitse 
pe siete eaodd ses of bedoote seod eyaguis evad I 
ode oft neduw.,zethude Yo inieg gnidseda edd ids 
boyd ylrselooidisg bas meds besdaveban of eldecs 
2 sotoseraxe M8,.9.i .910% eno balt bas dees ¥lno 
18 atehto edd dedi soy woe od ogod I -,aobiges 


: +. 
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AME 65 

9 F A- 
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i ae 
CHAPTER 2,: DIRECTING > RINCIPLES,: 
SUMMARY; mm Freedom from numerical formulas.»=- The beau- 
tiful in architecture and its identity with truth. -- Method . 
of composition in architecture,: from general to details, == 
The programme. «~« Location,: ground, surroundings,: climate,: «- 
Truth in construction expressed by architecture. -- Artistic 
falsehoods.: -= Material stability and the appearance of sta- 
bility.: 


) 
y 


My inaugural leeture may be summarized briefly; I have 
sought to make you see the entire elevation of your studies.’ 
If you left that. session with more elevated feelins,: more 
ambitious thoughts, my time was not, wasted. 

Today I propose to explain to you «= as far as possible = 
the general principles that should always govern your studies.) 
I. desire you to pereeive for yourselves the unity of these 
studies apparently so diverse.: You exercise today on a churchyi 
tomotrow on a theatre; your programmes are sometimes aus= * — 
ters,: sometimes worldly; your sites are limited and enclosed 
within a city, or free and airy in the country; this variety 
is necessary to ereate in you. flexibility and insSenuity; but. 
beyond these studies of the present. day and hour is the high- 
er and permanent. study; that of your. art in all these cases, 
and of yourselves.: This. study is the real purpose,: and i& is 
the unity of your labors; it. is the domain of the principles 
mentioned,: which will be youm guides, salvation and light,: 

First. to open our path,: let us begin by a little clearing. 

There is no need to tell you,: that I am not. an enemy of the 
antique orders,: whether there be three,: five or even four,: But 
I have always been shocked to see those antique orders placed | 
at. the starting point of studies,. when the student is still 
unable to understand them, and particularly by authors. bs ai 
only seek and find one form,: i-e.,an expression and not a cone 
ception. I hope to show you that. the orders are more valua- 
ble than their commentators,and the sauce with which they are 
served. But I cannot see them as the sole pivot of architect- 
ure or the first stage of your studies.’ 

Yet for more than two centuries,: architectural studies have 
been subject. to this despotism. When the Renaissance, in that 
grand movement-of the human mind that renewed philosophy,: lit- 
‘erature,: sciences and arts,: gave its admiration and enthusi- 


| 


| Rat: YY &3 | 
© meds beitmbe df. vstopisne Yo edneuunow bostg of4 of mea 
| SMeett Ratettiicse Jnodtiw sey bos beobat aitmtl tvodsiw 


\=aisnes sid ¢isme: of wot wont dnd weds yd bettqen? 2ew +I 
“IfwXoe eonssetanc® edd 1YIOtetd to emitantige sadd.eonse © 


hevetiod di nedw neve tedd,yiredt! 10% dushas oe bre gee 
deeds e6osiqiodesm vit no beeeetgmt sf. santyqos Yeast 
© yioehs efd svevooet od berteeb odw .evodiaw bas edeivosd? 
w® dud. .entui ed? henolieenp yeds sbextwbs ti elevigs ens 
in “ORe ‘Savot yont~= yYldonisdeth yrev efdd yse I =-yletsnud 
} : ‘septvexdiv 
hsgeqnedécc bis teitsw eroctbem s ulnaisdaeo ssw entvasdst¥ 
B® Sifvesl doedisor os beebai saw od tk ,doedidors etosiben 
onsite etom softdoslloo s .sofeetorib of foetdue yrev dood 
VYiev jertsdosdidows nsioexD Yo selua edd oF bemsotanoo 
D Btedeor9 end ot gew of dss Jatt Yo enigivo edi mort bevom 
- ¢ ved3 o¢ ensiotioseds eff ‘sien 2s gast emdoedidors 
ne 28 108 “erenqoeclidg jeets ‘edd of adetiqoe edd hae .arod 
masee8 ‘bine \,bevivises enole ed exsdoedifoys no red iaw Jnedons 
eal tmeetigang Yinines dot edt satod neds Jon eaw mateo 
Pare gait ni neddivw gnidsyns beveiled medt Si ee tent 
fed jefoneiv Petedif ddmseatanef edd-to etodd 
ptaiy edd ai mid bewolflot:,edetixe deste Ile esto! 
6 eonssttensh edd Yo evinet eds ,c1sdsedidors bedug 
 tofssgue sew = edd bae [fe to etige ni sext be 
y ‘~bevieoes Fi nor 
“ih eas nedw > VIX efgod shad odd sebay sets JvG 
seggseib bed Yandaeo ditt edd to Ylad Jatit edd Yo 


stetoreh vorens Mtitediss rot noliisderegua behees 
Lo 8 eitsmet eiedT :.meidogeeb to nolserenev edt 
add ern soodidorA to ymebsoA [ayor edd Yo nalts 
“ BitvutdiV Yo youmerqwe ed! bemtefoorg dotdw 


edt Yo domuiad edd bas. fevor tzomle ense 
esterevorsnos 16 efsbom eff -.déist to efsisrs 
P yfsslugute bas nolsouideni ni sory seerd 
any to sifge nI -.t1e to niemob edi ni ngterve 
G atyyemts [is to atetdias eurdt edd Yo sone 


edt bad ai dud -.sonehnegeint biviv esi to bas gts awo ett 


Haegebni blod o¢ :bemrolens1s sew Sitige donevT ~ 


i sMowude otdaiigs edd to tefdel « aid eben 


ii Iefade® 10 eonseatsnef sastifixd o8 bas yt | 


63 
asm to the grand monuments of antiquity,: it. admired them 
without limits indeed,: and yet without sacrificing itself. 
It was inspired by them, but. knew how to remain the Renais- 
sance,: that springtime of history,: the Renaissance so full of 
sap and so ardent for liberty,: that even when it. believed 
itself copying,: it impressed on its masterpieces the stamp of © 
its own art and of its vivid independence, But. it had its 
theorists and writers,: who desired to recover the theory of 
the marvels it admired; they questioned the ruins,: but. unfor- 
tunately-- I say this very distinctly -«they found one named 
Vitruvius. 

Vitruvius was certainly a mediocre writer and probably a 
mediocre architect, if he was indeed an architect,: leaving a 
book very subject to discussion,: a collection more or. ‘less 
conformed to the rules of Grecian architecture; very far. ree 
moved from the origins of that art,: he was to the creators of 
architecture just. as were the rhetoricians to the great ora- 
tors,: and the sophists to the great philosophers. But as an 
ancbent writer on architecture he alone survived, .and criti- 
cism was not then born;. the 16th century took him at his word, 
just as it. then believed anything written in Latin;the au- 
thors of the Renaissance,: Alberti,: Vignola,: Palladio and Dee 
lorme,: all great artists,: followed him in the path of com- 
puted architecture,: the genius of the Renaissance alone remait 
ed free in spite of all, and the art was superior to the insta 
tion it. received.: 

But later unger the aged Lois XIV,: when the great chixters 
of the first half of the 17th century had di sappeared,: the 
French spirit was transformed; to bold independence had suce 
ceeded superstition for authority,: narrow devotion to rule,: 
the veneration of despotism.: There remains a curious deliber= 
ation of the royal Academy of Architecture,then just created, 
which proclaimed the supremacy of Vitruvius,: and in some sort 
made him a father of the artistic church.: Then his theories b 
came almost royal,: and the triumph of the module was almost a 
article of faith. Phe module or controversies on it held a 
great place in instruction,: and singularly figures became sov 
ereign in the domain of art. In spite of the sturdy independ- 
ence of the true artists of all time,: in spite of the tempora 
ry and so brilliant Renaissance of Gabriel and his rivals,: 


ne ¥e 
- mttao aed of etsdostidosrs eveifed enoeteq enmoe yebot alagé 
>» Ieeliutct Lsotsemedism has bizia to Isunam 6.318 bedug 
bae ,eteduun Yo eonetos # gon ei otudoetidathe ,boebalt olf 
) ow eno yd fi ovomg bilwow I. ,e@tdd‘evotq od Yiseeeoen Ti 
edd 00 leted dosed of yiseseostingy ed bivow di esiwredsO 
panee otsoilfeh odd tadd voy wode nooe Jisde 1, .ytert 
| wvicoteq to yilwost edt medi etom duidton et enolidaoeg 
Yo tosod edd neve ef ybude at mobees? sidé yeebsdea etinitat 
; ‘potdibace eda sanahoti edd eeiwotif et Ji tot ,detine odd 
Mipi tate jit: 2 | ~fiqusivd edd to yroly edd 
din - So hariedaigeslaneiat eupfiins edi io dsega Ilsede I 
lath? off -.coelg bas omté ttedd at iud,motsjertabs base 


| foob hated elisw esedd at .2lisw élivd ylevoiverg bad 
i © esis 80 bedose1 nedd erohto edd te ybuta eds U1 ‘,ewobaiw 
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Biarastaatostotses {adigel odd iat aid? .shiewiedts 
| edd mi dowitent o¢ at etebto oft ddtw ooldautse 
Higex oid mA doutdent of ef Ilaw edt dtiw niged of 
ae Sy ‘ se®@eldioaiag eds of nistex I 
’ ili siuine. igi eed dite ;amcixs edi ead eansioc 


HEL dod. ieelatonitg esorogisa deom edd dtiw Jedd 
azeJe edd vdesaelan,.oldersenomeb gon o1s salgio 
69801 Vilutddiel. ¢aom evad dedi. ,adxow edd Jo. yd 
ming edd: of ettow edd Yo Ydiaiotncs dnadenos eT 
enth ens tin]em dedi ,edooge ofdaiirts Jeoxg ofd gee 
Mia aeods te. yidgsow @1erasvow ocodw , Isoluns fe 
Bresaiadt vo v0 f320< trae lo ydueu oa Jineastd 
cot .2988 e437 antswb 
hd eee a god doistiesa @ son eta aolqioniad 

- edd has avot¢siv edd >,dte as to ydilidoaedd 
ta so roe oto eddas- ound ayewis ed aidd Yi bad yedet 
iy yids yet Pt ae ivt to Seontvace ad Iliw soy e100 
to ydileaoated betlosjo5 2 193ad .astbede edd 
. Hhas inact letret egivbe senitenoe yaa eoidteaso 
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pdeer eed doidw asodd enimaxe a0 ted 

etbada bescetteds alah 20 mtenaiee: jasit odd 


MRSS Rae betas tac sane 


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, 


64 | 
figures strensthened their tyranny until very recent times.) 
Again today some persons believe architecture to be a con- 
puted art,: a manual of rigid and mathematical formulas! 

No indeed, --Architecture is not a science of numbers,: and 
if necessary to prove this,: I. would prove it. by one word,: art 
Otherwise it would be unnecessary to teach here! On the con- 
trary,: I. shall soon show you. that the delicate sense of pro- 
portions is nothing more than the faculty of perceiving their 
infinite shades; this freedom in study is even the honor of | 
the artist,: for it is likewise the danger, the condition of 
the slory of the triumph.: | 

I. shall speak of the antique orders,: certainly with respect 
and admiration, but in their time and place.: The first arch- 
itects that erected colonnades == and it was assuredly bold-- 
had previously built. walls,: in these walls being doorways and 
windows, If the study of the orders then reacted on these 
elements, it is no less true that this was only possible. 
afterwards. Phis is the logical method;: to commence the in- 
struction with the orders is to instruct in the appearance; 
to begin with the wall is to instruct in the reality.’ 

I. return to the principles,: 

Science has its axioms; art has its principles.: Both are 
the basis of our studies.: Of all the arts,: architecture is 
that, with the most rigorous principles; but like axioms,: prin 
Ciples are not. demonstrable,: unless by the eternal superiori- 
ty of the. works,: that. have most faithfully respected then.: 
The constant conformity of the works to the principles produ- 


_“ @es the great artistic epochs, that merit the fine name of 


~ @lassical; whose works are worthy of thought. and studyyamas 


“> 
transmit. to us by elegant exemples even the consebenes of art 


) 


during the ages,. i 
Principles ere not. a restraint but a light; they are also 
the nobility of an art,: the viaticum and the watchword of art 

ists.. And if this be always true -- the more you study the 
more you will be convinced of it,-- it is doubly true for 
the studies. Later a detached personality or accidental ne- 
cessities may sometimes advise deviations and compromises. 
During the studiea and for them, the principles are inviolebl 

Let us examine those which should guide you, that concern 
the first attempts or the higher studies.: 


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v dedd: ddors basotorg bas etamisat isdt 4ae2 ned? ,cevloe 
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65. | 

The beautiful is the splendor of the true,: said Plato in a 
magnificent definition.: Art is the means given to man for 
producing the beautiful;. art is then the pursuit of the beau- 
tiful in the true and by the true,: 

In the imitative erts,: the true is nature; in the creative 
arts and notably in architecture, the true is less readily de- 

fined; as for myself,: I shall express pt by the word conscience, 
If for the painter and sculptor, the true is in the external 
world,: for us it resides in ourselves.) 

In ourselves,: provided we know how to loyally question oure 
selves.’ Then seek that intimate and profound truth, that ver- 
ity of coneciences: Thus you will protect yourselves. from the 
contagion of ephemeral success,: from the tyranny of fash» 
ion,: from servile imiteation,: from the mirage of thoughtless 
fancye. 

Besides you will have safe guides, if you have the will to 
follow theme; I. will endeavor to indicate them to youe; 

The ancient. authors recognized three divisions in the work 
of the architect.) 

The arrangement,: which we call composition.; 

The proportions,: that is the study.) 

The construction, the control of the study by science, and 
finally the erection.. 

Composition cannot be taught and can only be learned by re= 
peated attempts, examples and advice,: personal experience su-« 

perposed on the experience of others.) 

Furthermore, if for the study the experienced artist is 
nearly certain of his powers, the part of daily good fortune 
in composition is great. For the same subject,: some will make 
a find today,: who found nothing yesterday and will find noth- 
ing tomorrow,’ 

- But remember this carefully,: for it is even the reward of 
your studies; this fleeting and doubtful idea offers nothing | 
except to the strong; if it comes to you when you are well 
prepared by strong and serious studies, you will know how to 
use it;. you can compose; if by a miracle it appears to the 
ignorant,: he will allow it to escape or will torture it withe 
out any result.: 

Thus to compose is necessary the idea,: and that is a good 
fortune; the power from studies is required,: for this is the 


g01 to aeitea s to tivees odd od ylorsy [Liw eebt eidt 
e sti at satett.,cisvediaya od Ylinsipett geom fiw ¢k yegat 
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ted? ,oigol {encidibant to eboddem bas 2atroedé 
pata outst odd: aottindnt af aodtsoes§ bas dosed 
| pavene edd od Lliw etpbeootg odd bank .asebl oftatias 
+ Reon: seenemak 19 bototttee1 ed toetdua odd 

a deat? yoy ,eumetgorg bebnedxe teom eds at boobal 
ican: ,901dd 19 ond YIno evieoreg of tebxe aft elisges 
| Se Rihbon vie dan dadseantibabces lo 2quvosk dsetg evit 10 
 Saitentaoh edt evsd bloode dotdW¥ dese to moisitogotg ovite 
vesedt, 1h Ginetvxe reesei 10 t9esseng odd datdw hae ,noittacg 
Lin nie Qalbnadetebas. as bas amustge1g ed? to eaotveoup eve 
-od yYsstidne off mot) Qnteacd .joette oft bas aboon 
 goy ,alisdeb adi es jnib(tsd edd to aega oft mort 
Whietoeges :.cucioiaul ed éateg gatiatete Yoido xwoy tt aeetg 
Xa a thats: agtal tot yiesseoea Vi gaivieecs ,bawot et di Yt 
afin ee ad¢ o¢ fibers evi o¢ afisted 
a ti g ss adimil aid bas alatioism saetotttas edaes 

oe 1 Seat at doofden I dotdw Meictstro bas aningoasef 
| aera tgoy fontaco of sist tiedt nt -emoo 
. eceaiees: ed od wod woos geua voy: .bevisonoo avad 
aa, sanokstqeaonoe 1W09¥% 


oo re gatk?. itie woy aaaliteoguco asoy al 
nt ed gon bivore ati? .ommetgotg edd oF yttleb 
® yaid ot sevid od exyswis blvode tad. ,soasidors 
noi ‘olde. datias odt ei soadtdors edT sndteq- ano eid 
sf Yi ebtioeb. od mid +03 ton 22 di dud -,oumethortg 
Gaon 30 aetinpet od todéedw ..etedusdo {[etevea x0 90 
sa s ened, ets ealqusxs sekfiasl) ete ,oasod sgaiatse 
sq soedidors., eds yidmeuper? jedt ests yrov ef #1 
boas OETEHe .dasdioqmi exow 1s0 to yYasm dae  emaats 
“of ba 8 bse Ytev et ¢I .emmet2z0%q s duodsin detoet 
eit ) edi: ot-sotd? tadd savsood ei ¢1 Taione di ydw. 
aX sdnen vods dedw wood gon ob alsinitte 10 agaatlo 
| ye 5” so geam 10% Jom bue word of modt 102 

pre kth  moy 10% ,eted o2 ed Jon Ifiw st sesol gh 
ts a ylteqgorg eo o¢ wodd envees I .2emmatd 
94 wor ae Sade $1 .ddgia ye gaibosoxe dom 


Ul 


4 
% i 

, ai H aed 

y 


: ‘ iy : ri y F 

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ee Si eas | : 
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s808L edt gateo to ytdiadreo 


eid 


66 
certainty of using the idéa.; 

This idea will rarely be the result of a series of reason- 
ings; it. will most frequently be synthetic, rising in its en- 
tirety in your minds; this mode of creation, that baffles the 
theories and methods of traditional logic, that contradicts 
Bacon and Bescartes,: is intuition, the true generator of the 
artistic ideas.; And the procedure will be the same,: whether ' 
the subject be restricted or immense.: 

Indeed in the most extended programme,: you first omit the 
details in order to pereeive only two or three,: perhaps four 
or five great groups of varied importance,: conceiving the rede 
ative proportion of each. Which should have the dominating 
position,: and which the greater or lesser extent? All these — 
are questions of the programme and an understanding of the . 
needs and the effect,; Passing from the entirety to the parts,: 
from the mass of the building to its details,: you readily prog 
gress if your chief starting point, be judicious,: especially 
if it is found, reserving if necessary for later study many 
details to give credit to the composition,: provided it pre- 
sents sufficient materials and the limits are propitious.) 

Reasoning and criticism, which I neglect in nowise,: will 
come in their turn to control your conception,: for after you 
have conceived,: you must know how to be the proper judges of 
your conceptions.; 

- In your compositions you. will first be guided by loyal fi- 
delity to the programme.) This should not, be the work of the 
architect,: but. should always be given to him; each one has 
his own part,: The architect, is the artist able to realize a 
programme, but, it. is not, for him to decide if the client needs 
one or several chambers, whether he requires or not,: stables,: 
carriage house,: etce.; (Familiar examples are here assumed). 

It is very true that frequently the architect, receives no prow 
Sraume,: and many of ovr more important, edifices have been C= 
rected without, a programme, It is very sad,: and do you. know 
why it, occurs? It is because that. three-fourths of the time 
clients or officials do not. know whet, they want. Yet this is 
for them to know and not, for u&.) 

At least. it, will not. be so here, for you will reeeive pro- 
Srammes., I assume them to be properly made,: this assumption 
not. exceeding my right.: It belongs to you to know how to read 


| 
| 


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> e) he 8 ' ’ , 


vt Tie i Ya 


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Stogo%q ‘108 aotisatdmos ahed? toddien ateotgue tnd, eaockts ler 
reel (fide blwoda sumergorg odd yeezendtand swoy et tsdT ;.enots 
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| bedoegxe ef sdw fiew buatersbau Javw voy dud \jeasem to x3 
dd Yo Envitrogorg edd to gsebi vaui s sved deum voy ‘qoy mott 
edd dedi nooqed sedto if[iw si bus. edveq dnetetTib 
es: ofidw,biow evo wt detadoo ([Liw gnid? Ledigao bas 
“ai awoy diftw df bee .eeitosesoos toain edd 107 Yisese0en al 
pared BRE LETS ~. ‘e8enea boo§ bas sonesi {led 
emmstgorg edt to aotielo1 odd [[tta zi ot90eds ) eddint 04 
“6i60 wel (,eeunetb07¢ faxusostido1s to yderttina odd of tloadt 
Ee /tu0y nt eee ex bas ,cotisrs¥hexe of yousbaed Yees ae 
Litt 402 oaoi ai sede 1.d% Yo eleae of d a0 atnomeagneite anots 
ei etd? eodead bane aoisiogeta ai 10190 :.2eanod Jisoo efs 
paadive “Yieesisoy cos lq :yrommetgorg eltdil bas mufheom +, dse13 
a ak oo. Rigsss HOY ifiw avid elao 10? ,elase 
> ae ‘ste tositsds 
ois saibe fea soy ot eedsoibat omsatgo1rg ofT 
edidotk wboaverg bas soidesol edd jaoidtzoqace 
to ih edie cies tiedd Lis ditw eeidio eds jeatsaob 
ete a a oft agatbavoriwe bas asqeoebas f adiidiw vtdasoo 
ni bbw ponsaivel snare Xtth use qaniedavon edd bas 
(sone te 
eccoey e128 Stab altelinantnat edit ysto es al 
rb Beis -svideiseval toa dguodd ,eaetdésool Isdaonunom 
a ee edz ed [{iw entism to ytveainin s tot enmmatg 
apes oF | tuoxettib etiup ed bluow ¢i sey bas »,10¢180p 
edt a exse 8 10 %0),9bt09000 sf ab sosid ao bedeo 
pak een taste TYEB qiexridae ed aselsduob bluow 
me 2a bLwow eno bas ,evaivess® .2 to [Lid edd to 
e9 bfx edd to erudoedtinors edd at atngoooA Yo sawed 
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he 


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ae wot aoljsloa Isool baa {snigito as 


iavdlo odd Yo aofd 


| 67 
them properly.) 

A programme gives you & list. of the rooms,: indicates their 
relations, bur suggests neither their combination nor propor+ | 
tions.) That. is your business; the programme should still less — 
impose solutbons,: and I have never conceived such restrictions, 
Just as well hold your hands., The programme leaves you liber~ 
ty of means,: but you must understend- well what is expected 
from you; you must, have a just. idea of the proportions of the 
different, parts,: and it, will often happen that, the important, 
and capital thing will consist in one word,: while a paragraph 
is necessary for the minor accessories.; Read it with your in= 
telligence and go00d senses) 

But further,: there is still the relation of the programme 
itself to the entirety of architectural programmes.) You have — 
an easy tendency to exasggeration,: and we see in your composi-= | 
tions arrangements on the scale of St.) Peter. in Rome for lite 
tle court. houses.) Error in proportion and taste.) There are 
great, medium and little programmes;: place yourself at. the 
scale, for only thus will you attain variety in truth,: i.e}: 
character; 

The: programme indicates to you an essential element, of the 
composition; the location end ground,.; Architecture has many 
domains; the cities with all their diversity of sites, the 
country withits landscapes and surroundings,: the seashore 
and the mountains; very different, latitudes without, leaving 
Francée} 

In a city like Paris,: monuments are generally placed on 
monumental locations, though not, invariably.) Evidently 2 prom 
gramme for a ministry of marine will be the same in whatever — 
quarter, and yet it. would be quite different to assume it lo- 
eated on Place de la Concorde,: or on a street. The Pantheon 
would doubtless be entirely @ifferent,: were it, not on the top 
of the hill of 8.; Genevieve,: and one would not. conceive the 
Court. of Accounts in the architecture of the old Palace d'Or- 
say, had it, not. an outlook on the Seine and the Tuileries.; 
Yet. Paris is almost, a level city.) If you dwelt in an amphi-~ 
theatre like Genoa,: your eyes would behold what, you can alread 
find in the owrk of Gauthier,: all programmes receiving in ‘urn 
an original and local solution for that, very peculiar. situa- | 
tion of the city.; | 


ai 83 ; 
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‘7 ebts eno eysavie et otedt .1ls bus dooldue tot s9vsebne a2 
od? fads ,btse ed yem di bas 210dto edt edt evitosiéie oxo 
| "i Aatoega diiw bezoqmeo at eauod yadavoo yseve to aig 
7 rod ee oh ih peweiv berteterg edd of gone 
edd tot dowssa tda ,ontgole tedwomoz ed baverg eft YF 
aoldouttenoo to asnemertupet eid dtiw aatoqnoo wetv [wtiissed 
\ bobasdxe ettupes soy Seebat tI :.aotétaogques edd edesoib ag 
nce ei di ,daemeknaite Lgoixiounya addin eotstoniite 
rey bestisse1 od aso evedt Jedd seni! [evel to nedq Ladaos 
een memoiteveoxe bag effi? evomions ,zotysourdedss Jserd 
OM to yeddA beterdeleo odd eAil exngourdea altaenom & sagem 
deies oebtep 6) (tS ,gilleodneted9 edit Lediqeod 8 ,oateeed 
8S RET) Efovift ta otefi'b a l{t¥ edd 10: nobsveld .eantemred :.2 
naniiaens bavo1k edd ,ewod de atoatd sid to ebsaomorg edt to 
to aeneneds tol Ti as (alevel eviveeooua ai aoidiaoquos 
3 -.vewtiede 
ef esottegut etos.odd.,.soidsnifont edi te48073 fT 
|): jwotode elgate $ mo seit afedavom a a0 oa e10m neve 
fteqg edd ofl -eacisoetoig adeca eno etodase2 add JA 
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add rednomer  ,soaises yo.selliv »,eledod +0o% bas ylgathioo 
3 tans to wetv s diitw emoot dguome oved fonaso vox 
te@4tedd gatog rot aoaset ofos dé 


fonrie ‘sidd teds soy isd ylqmia ILiw omumsitgz0%1q edT 
ot soy tot af Jt jodie io Davos niattes s so od 
Mi pei Lio od bas eaatdg: Yetad tadd to ativeer odd Ils 
ae (eeibude avoy to ysatisy odd 
2g: “emsa edd déiw semastg0%q Isotéaehi ows omuaad 


‘oo ted do atd bas divot edt af cao .adaemetinpes bas 


aga Seek 


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Wy daidw) awe edd mor? acvieatvoy toatotg Lliw 
eitdors deds efdeixemer ytev ai ¢t yabeen tas 
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? ‘yadtdiaogmes adt fon sod 


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% 
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68 

In the country,: there should be felt, in your compositions 
an endeavor for outlook and air.; There is always one side. 
more attractive than the others,: and it, may be said, that the 
plan of every country house is composed with special refer= 
ence to the preferred view.) 

If the ground be somewhat, sloping,: this search for the most; 
beautiful view competes with the requirements of construction 
to dictate the composition.) If indeed you require extended 
structures with symmetrical. arrangement,: it, is not, by a hori- 
zontal phan or level lines that, these can be realized without, 
great. substructures,: enormous fills and excavations.; When it, 
means & monastic structure like the celebrated Abbey of Monte 
Cassino,. a hospital like Charenton(Fig.) 21),:a garden as at. 
S.; Germains,: Meudon,: or the Villa d'Este at. Tivoli (Fig.; 22),: 
or the promenade of the Pineio at, Rome,: the ground requires. 
composition in successive levels,: as if for the steps: of a 
stairwaye; | 

The greater the inclination,: the more imperious is this law,: 
even more so on a mountain than on a simple shores; 

At. the seashore one seeks protectione- like the permanent, 
inhabitantse- or enjoyment. as transient, guests.; Compose ac- 
cordingly and for hotels,: villas or casinos,: remember that, 
you cannot. have enough rooms with a view of the sea.) This is 


— 


the sole reason for. going there.) 


The programme will simply tell you,: that, this structure will 
be on a certain ground or site; it, is for you to understand ~ 
all the results of that, brief phrase and to utilize it. for 
the variety of your studies,.: 

Assume two identical programmes with the same importance 
and requirements, one in the North and the other in the Souths} 
Not. merely the studies but, the compositions entirely differ.) 
In the South will be rooms lighted indirectly from beneath 
porticos,: preferably opening on shady internal courts; you 
will protect, yourselves from the sun,: which you will seek in 
the North.) In both climates architecture has entirely differ- 
ent, needs; it is very remarkable that, architects in the 16th 
century in France,: so passionately fond of Italian architect= 
ure, and even Italian architects working in France like Boccae 
der,: borrowed from Italy its taste,: forms and decorations, : 
but, not its composition.; 


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= 5 i & ade Me a Fy 
ek 1 eee | e3 
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p to dd¥tod atitse odd déiw awobatw esnemait ozodd absoet odt 
8 ian d#dgil to bean ;ylesl wi davot etedwon (4&8 >.874) yroda 
j ) edd je 28 ,omoh to sonet0l% Js ave mort mofdostorg «at 
jib $1 (49.987) [fed ytio s emooed aed edd emo to Lo 
[e base détow deeth ytev to adaonvaos ows e1sqmoo ot gaitaoted 
cS + bas (8S 327) exvaod eds Yo ds1soo odd) .vret0gastaos daon 
avv0l eft to tisoo off «(98 :.8fT) ewok Je ooatsd sire lileoned 
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edd to ebsost odd Adt¥ .etreif{eousd adi to eaods déiw betsg 
fe dud) ylionisath eee don bilwow eno:,aiisd ani sitelleonsd 
i bivow sao +, 9tviod edd to divoo edd to shaoat odd ddiw omok 


Py ee 8 ‘.beatod baa bobalfid 
aug}? ef ae 101 ,geonetettib jdgile don exe se0dd bad 
eS =-iai ehsosl eno to eostiva [edoT 
beh tay ee ‘edt apa SRC suode elas lleonsd 
bate | mot pe PASl Jsucds erviod 
yee | ==iglevidoegee: e1s santmeqo edt to ssors stot 


eo nse geq BE to yntt pe ELL dvods» siralisoasd 
‘to taso tog @.08 to g.d% wpe 8S duods . ,o1vnod 


sate sei tgs evad ytote honey edi to awobniw adt 
B's, coke | ott &, .  @irel feonsd 


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bait ask snaehbante agewded acosge Iisw edi gatdeT 
i ; ; we SELES 
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fet? E82. site llesned 
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Me shsost ‘fons m0 abaimego to sdgted Isdod end) Vifent® 
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_ Gactdeh .ewobniw fedoT :.jdgied isiof — 
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Py ca. 


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vee 


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es Ry Le 9) dt best988 8h 


69 

I. have. cited Boccador,: i,ee,: the City Hall of aris; see on 
the facade those immense windows with the entire height, of a 
story (Fig,: 23). nowhere found in Italy; need of light. at, Dar- 
is,: protection from sun at, Florence or Rome,: as. at, the Capit= — 
ol of Rome, that, has. become a city hall (Fig.24).: It is ine 
teresting to compare two monuments of very great, worth and ale 
most, contemporary,: the court, of the Louvre (Fig.; 25). and the 
Cancellaria Palace at, Rome (Fig.; 26).; The court of the Louvre 
is fully inspired by Italian art, in study and decoration.) 
But. see at the Louvre the proportions in height. of windows com. 
pared with those of the Cancellaria.; With the facade of the 
Cencellaria in Paris,: one would not, see distinctly,: but, at. 
Rome with the facade of the court, of the Louvre, one would: be 
blinded and burned.) 

And these are not slight. differences,: for taking aan 

Total surface of one facade is: «= 
Cancellaria about, 958 sae; fte: 

Louvre about, 1269 sae; ft.) 

Total areas of the openings are respectively: -— 
Cancellaria,: about. 113 sq.i ft.,: or 11.8 per. cent, of surfa 
Louvre,: about, 245. sq.; ft.,: or 20.9 per cent, of surfaces; 

The windows of the second story have heights oft==« 
Cancellaria,: «i+ 9.2 ft,; 

Louvre, 15,41) fee 

Taking the wall spaces between windows,: we find on the con- 

traryi «=< 


SEO 


Bet.) Ground and ist.) Bet.) 1st. and 2nd.- 
Cancellaria,: Azelf; 16.4% ftp} 
Louvre, : (10,8 fte; 12.;8 ft; 
Finally,: the total height. of openings on each facade and 
its ratio to total height, of the edifice. are: «« 
‘Total height,.; Total windows.; Ratio.; 
Cancellaria,: 80.0: ft»j 28.72 ft, 3D he; 
Louvre, 74.7 fb53 40.3 ft,) 54%) 
Certainly, there is to be learned a lesson from this compari- 
son, not. given by myself,: but, by the great, artists of the 
16th. ecentury.; What, errors have resulted from having forgotten 
or scorned it? 
Another guide for you will be truth of construction express 
ed by the architecture.; Here I perhaps touch upon the most, 


pate aay 
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age seotorg 2» qtoktontieih tassilte s aan eidt~~.gat 
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git eVhase to bas aoidieogaos to esoqisg “ole sad 
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sity Bie: | ‘sauototy ef sotsoutsanoo.edt gotttelst 
eve basdeteban mov noltosidgesoo biew edd yd Yi bad 
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oti marreee din doomed (2 bas sok 


70. 
elevated of all your studies.) 

Henri. Labrouste taught, that architecture is the art of buil 
ing.+-This was a militent distinction,: a protest against the 
too real disdain of construction in certain schools of that, 
time.. But to be more incisive, that, definition was incomplete — 
and itself sinned in forgetting artistic composition.) Arch- 
itecture conceives,: then studies,: finally constructs. | 

But,: and this must be fully understood,: construction is. i 
the final purpose of composition and of study, for one never } 
conceives or composes except to be able to constructe: The * 
constructbon should be the constant, thoubht of the architect,: 
for it supplies the arsenal of his resources and also limits ; 


his domain, All tentative architecture not econstructable does 
| 


| 


not count,: and every architectural form that violates or i, 
falsifies the construction is vicious.} % 

And if by the word construction you understand even the . 
structure of the edifice, its entire and effective reality, @ all 


you conceive that the completed edifice expresses anything 
other than that structure,: that the construction expresses 
anything but itself? Not at all,: yet, such still exists,: there 
are also falsehoods in architecture, and sometimes with the 
oerfidious charm of great talent displayed in falsifyins., 
What, would you say of the facade of a house, that, indicates 
four stories,: when there are but three? A ridiculous question 
you will thinke- and indeed the house is guaranteed against. : 
that falsehood by its impossibility. But are you certain that 
this does not exist elsewhere? | 
Well in Paris itself -- for I prefer if possible to cite exe 
amples that. you can verify -« see the facades of S,: Gervais 4 
or of Ss. Paul and Louis.: Hach shows three stories.) «= Hhy?--— 
Bach presents an outline having nothing in common with the ; 
construction of the edifice, so that if viewed sidewise, : these 
facades produce the effect. of planes isolated in space,: fore 
eign to the monument,: that, they disguise instead of - indicating 
Likewise in Italy are numerous monuments,: among which 1 will 
cite the Cathedral of Lucca, with an interesting facade en« t 
tirely out of accord with the structure(Fis.: 27). On the con | 
trary, see the facades of other churches, Se) Niicholas=-des-= | 
Champs, the transept facades of S.) Eustache,: S.) Etienne dw 4 
| 


| 
| 


Mont and S. Laurent; with sensible differences in style and ~ 


; ry 
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igus odd vd yviesosnotte o8 bedovai stew aupitas odd Y1 
agi at aids -sedd ebam teven df ,ehoodoe let olteaiste ovedd 
"ew « Dn fe =Oels bas  .vttitctieque olidedtas bus yiols Jeoteg 
dyvorts doze? udtiatiegua evideoube acdi~«loodog and at ete 
eaodn o otttbe efsdie ¢ bait tom [Liw soy bas ylinptiiéas {ie 
we 20, sIs203 add ellsovorgioss fom 618 toltsixe nae yoftedsal 
Sa eR ‘eff bobaedetqmos eono vei voy aedW c.tedto 
t bas noleaergxe mtot adi ,eortibe eupiine 
47 teNdiegsoen to sobi etuloeds edd voy at 
i outst omae edd JA ;.02 90 ton blwoo JsAd 
§ hottisoqnoo yd inti jused tud .lvtisused 
oy , ‘gdta dootveq af etedT 
| oe ait Aen Sydiuottas to Sgeliviag eds atds et taS 
jo ed tos blues gadd" Yo notasetomi> vsilinsbhi ,yiines 


Me 


ne 2: deed 190 ak» sonscs lanai astist&@ edd to ascalisa 
fs saobive eeel baa beoavomotg 249! aaedreq j2eoftibe 
gat floidw » TaJean aid to ydatierevoe tedd yd beitic 
wiioptins So dtem ofd od of smose orndsredif nt as 

eemmetzegg aii to qiiotiqnia edd to egueosd 
, to to ezcq1mg badsvele edi bas nis, “edd ef dove 


ja don al th pits %o sooged edi ai ddguods eldoa s 

as ti adt ud vlao dud ;ioset awe buoyed ef 
Qe gol yactteivdh ssodsiw diag boiweas edd 
¥ gi 10% ,edooge Intidueed edt Yo Lsebt 
treo obras edd af isebi aidt eonte 


as déoxd - .basd 920 edt no boodealel .ense bas [eat 


$0" esdorrdo wo st ,sseeliesd texit edd al bxkT i me 
\erres ytioe ateddsol t#0 af .setirsace dgvit Bune deel . 


2S Os | q two bas ».2noljieotiquoa ead eit ago beebal 
rons eda od gevisameni bael son ob ded? ,etmemetiny 


Q 
‘ ’ 
a 


71 
taste,: even the structure of the monument appears; all is loge 
ical and sane. Falsehood on the one hand,: truth on the other.:— 

Again a falsehood em perhaps absolved by the slory of the 
triumph «-is that colennade of the Louvre,: those facades of 
the Louvre from Louis XIV,: without harmony with the interior,:— 
and which later required the addition of a third story next, 
the court of the Louvre,: happily designed by Gabriel(Fis.; 28),; 
It is indeed a beautiful front,: a fine ornamental page; but. 
how much more beautiful and admirable,: had Ferrault known how — 
to produce the same effect without violating and nearly con- 
promisins a monument certainly not meritinsg such disdain! ’ 

If the antique were invoked so erroneously by the authors of 
these artistic falsehoods,: it never made them; this is its : 
purest glory and esthetic superiority,: and also-w- since we 

: 
‘ 


‘ 
7 
r 
; 


are in the School--its educative superiority. Search through 
all antiquity and you will not find a single edifice,: whose 
interior and exterior are not reciprocally the result of each 


other.; When you have once comprehended the structure of an 


antigue edifice,: its form,: expression and realization arouse 
in you the absolute idea of necessity.; This must, be so,: and 
that could not be so.: At the same time it, is generally very 
beautiful. but beautiful by composition and not by artifice. 
There is perfect art.: q 
But is this the privilege of antiquity? No. The same sin- ~ 
cerity,: identity, impression of "that could not. be otherwisé™,’ 
I. find in the first. basilscas,: in our churches of the 12th,: ~ 
13th and 14th centuries,: in our Northern city halis,: in the 
palaces of the Btelian Renaissance,: in our beautiful modern 
edifices; perhaps less pronounced and less evident,: less Slom 
rified by that sovereignty of the master,: which in thw arts 
as in literature seems to be the mark of antiquitys--perhaps 
because of the simplicity of its pBposrammes. “a 
Such is the,aim and the elevated purpose of our art.: 4 
Indeed our life has complications,: and our programmes have ree 
qguirements,: that do not lend themselves to abstract art. Yet 
a noble thought is the beacon of art; it is not atteined and 
is beyond our reach; but only by its direction can we follow 
the assured path without deviation; let us give ourselves that, 
ideal of the beautiful epochs,: for it will not, be to copy ial 
since this ideal is the entire sincerity of a conscientious ~~ 


‘alae vf | a os dD wis rut ‘atid -_ eS qs hi! ‘ a tee 


“Uiotisme soa ed ai Xf tooiteq of Jonmeao dotdy . .wbhoor 
bigest ¥ ae (smoigertigen! awo éd£ bas sonetive 
fh at0 09 od: hakennnqet otdeisxe eldoa atdé 102 404 
“od ta @f dod. [eer od of yillidsese edt tol eolttse dos 
hee jae 2) diitened iseot set tus af nottsttadé .gaeht 
ms -duoddiw “goso doa seob dnouietuotdes skid ,noktos? 
it no eextee idinetde eldsidecinocoi bas saebive endl 
» thas bevseces ai vofdssinge -ecingige edd nedt ston 
fT | " .uneeseoen Jerk? el 
| sase aft ao dhoteggs yiev sus eocisecignt owt esodt 
‘seins? ni emed erxdol 
Eiéiw: (CS -.bitlebsfet Lactonizg odd oe2 ow. nodlh 
geste ead, ~beaclone iiew of aladicg adi»,etewod fe 
‘idin Jjosagonoe edd eitishs yoy ,eaisvelle: ‘Ivd ead 
sin00 243 SVS) .@180%? 20,adnebices oa yydlase égea 
ag [lew ea {letiine gedt sxnini sweve.to yowesed 
; atitnae at et%odds senoiireqoic adi ai go0ande 
@te 00 ai Snileet aics ii bas »,¢deltxas on 
Pete tiotie? Mites oviats soy nies abe 0 


Sag 


ses re 


$1 i Bo dovedc aa) evtteasds base babots ceed 
ona atom eexiuge: eae won soy dsdil 
od 2zevioonce vieonxaoe 400 .geonbiod sisuy dtot 
40. ybiewa bas Stewie siayids. anoftoser, haa 
Bat a0, ca 8 ep wisidhey {ies tem on T 


ess aaa bexepashas ehoda bedevts & 50 doade 8 
@ isioilidgs. dod > beebab twidetnoded erectsae 
» hala gbolileviam gedd din noaivaqmoo nt 


. ba ed 
od de pee on Say 
+’) 0 
ee ae | : i) 

a ia 4 : mi b , 7 
) ee Tee Le ov ieee ae 


Spear hac SY oi tes a eree 
ait bas enson awe nae tite vino noises teeq antkece ,.d38 


ease asdscenn mie to comebive edd at Shy” Cea 


72 
art, seeking perfection only with its own means and its own 
needs,: which cannot, be perfect if it, be not, entirely its own 
evidence and its own inspiration.: 

But for this noble artistic impression to be felt,: it does 
not suffice for its stability to be real,: but, it must be ev- 
ident.: Admiration in art. is a real benefit,: an entire satis- 
faction,: while astonishment does not ocoyr without, anxiety.: 
Thus evident and incontestable strength seizes on the mind 
more than the surprise; admiration is reserved and conviction 
is first necessary.’ q 

These two impressions are very apparent, on the same monument 
Notre Dame in Paris.: i 

hen we see the principal fafade(Fis.: 29). with its monument 
al towers,: its portals so well enclosed,: the clear lines of 
its twi gelleries,: you admire the monument, with its magnifi= — 
cent, sanity; no. accidents or. freaks,: even the centuries cannot 
destroy or even injure that, entirety so well posed and so 
strong in its proportions; there is entire satisfaction and — 
no anxiety,: and if this feeling is not analyzed,.it is still 
effective; you admire with felicity, giving yourselves up en= 
tirel ye; | 

Pass around and observe the chevet, of sot Dame(Fig.: 30). 
What. you now see requires more science or. experience and more 
foftunate boldness.) One scarcely conceives how these forms. | 
and reactions,. thrusts outward and inward, can be equilibrate 
The monument appears like a vessel on its ways for leunching, 
supported by struts,: and the mind asks what would happen at 
a shock or a crushed stone endangered the astonishing equin 
librium. Astonishing indeed,: but artificial and precarious | 
in comparison with that. marvellous principal foosdesimee aaje 
tic im the evidence of its unshaken strength.: 


€z. 


area —., AR: i Bs om tae erat fill RY nt “ a mn, 4 . waa as le + ad } iat f r 
ye") yee gees ; 


I Pl a ‘’ ie 
worrr 1 40 fe Op GARE BAT [TET RATSALD 
- eastepatbannsy Sak seotes {rtoet: a sFanwiue 
cies 'yaed «= wdolderes Has PALIMSTd we HOt steogmoo wi 
habeh }o-esred etd Yo epasdaogu! Yo soltvedhaitpied «= .sedaw 
aera Se xdnemetnsi1a odd Yo wotv af wiaresh | 
a iavideways ~~ aedneasiaeris {utidueed bres ésaeme gaan 
y oft wm yng rari aga s'vo boodaseing’d oF wk 
| 8 ita Pade tbnoe B as7oaenstd ~~ sossoavedd ~~ 4Edetael 
wHdets ois 00 Bnoldibneds Tatsos Yo doot?h ~~ yanks tber? &4 


~ 


‘ote ; (couthay aS cara sdooge dose Wo e410 fo84 


aia wy - 


ae einenetivpet edd gedweace sanehroo ep gad: 
5 one xelgmod al #f ae ndca xe snnerhong yreve nl 
fe on [vtean miet Ileda i sidw text? aduge 
te ghipmoe eidt woxt exe o'f eiuht a Nbacale yrer 
hteiitnes ¢ ess) ,tetosiedo soattede ylidgifa 
@ totacen sas79 6. %6o aig Sad easely poy 4 #06 fee 
Toe hht: aa rhi.. vanes 

ea ifs, ete, o% sii eeorte Inteat vent 


a eid Lo deweito:; and does 6 moot hein ks 
A times Bas seadt fic £0 GAGS - ‘Od GR8 

oe Aye | Ladnowinod sénotiscinommog Vieeesben 
spore hesoaede Goaetsne emote dab, 2rchdx709 
2s eldativent er Seite uyewiiate eniveer bac aigm 
dete Movs: MgndClowh, ott wiais bas e48il wot adcuce 
fod Yrazscoss ete Yedy Seuadods .2roleun. bemies at: 
} Vi3n09 to- toeidc eid anied dwodiiw bos betgue 


| rygelivenbat end! ae 2oeasgxe ese 
ae\ierouep edd. setierdnt edd of ee! tanh 


 8idizecg, ag pot a6 bedotwaeas ed dete 
ested sy ef Rint edn iinet anmmoe: 


LB oe beth ‘ded3 yas oti dedw doa’ eb tT” 

AGxt! to? \gorses goo hirq 10 shabbat 
ae to. anegat aged s Ciatt fon ybaratean 
ain een se dae, pert ccet ctaneane 


bus elteqory YoR/Qend YroLsibhbtcs. yreaceoan | +” 


¢ 


aide tednegey anes 


icc Al om eitttanog as doom ve back ee 


RS et 
| 73 ee 
CHAPTER III, THE GRAND RULES OF COMPOSITION,: 

SUMMARY. «- Useful areas and conmmunications.«-Zconomy 
in compositions: w- Lighting and aeration., -- Basy renoval of | 
water.) -- Determination of importance of the parts of. the pro 
éramme in view of the arrangement.; -= Sacrifices.) == Useful 
arrangements and beautiful arrangenents.: -—- Symmetry. <~ What, 
is to be understood by a beautiful plan.) -- The picturesque.-- 
Variety. -~ Character.. -- Character a condition of diversity.} 
w- Tradition. -- Effect, of social conditions on the archi- 


tecture of each epoch.; 


bet. us condense somewhat, the requirements of conponti dees j 
In every programme as soon as it is complex are two distinct 
parts; first, what 1. shall term useful areas, then the Hetoas 
sary communications.) To take from this consideration its "7 
slishtly abstract character,: take 2@ familiar example,: a hous: 
select if you please the plan of a great mansion of back 18th 
century (Fis.: 31). i an q 

The useful areas here are all the occupied rooms,: which ar 
enjoyed and required by the occupant,} He build to have selo 
dining rooms,: chambers,: closets,: kitchens,: @te.; . 

But to-connect all these and permit access are requi: 
necessary communications; horizontal,: by means “Of! ga 
corrbdors,: anteroous,: entrance spaces; vertical,: by 
main and service stairways.) That is inevitable,: as ~ 
courts for lifht. and air in the dwelling; such ares 
be termed useless, because they are necessary bub, : 
cupied,: and without being the object of construct 
necessary condition; they may properly be compared % 
eral expenses in the industries.: ee 

Just. as in the industries, : the general expenses. 
duced as much as possible,: so in architectural compos 
must be restricted as much as possible the areas 
communicatiabs,.; This ts the intelligent economy 
But, remember this.). | fi 

I. do not wish to say that. your. at oteneye must. be. 
galleries or porticos narrow,: fab, from that; but do 
uselessly multiply these means of communication, : al 
communications beceme embarrassing and even obstru 
erally the chief difficulty in composition is to ar 
easily pass everyalere that. all babe may be conve 


c 1 
Mes | ‘ 


sO ie (ah Ay Tt ka Py Seema 


sent aaah odd eo [iis boogetebna Win? o¥oy bus 19 
fish soottaog: Yo B2A9R9 dvoddin aed enélicotane 
“saa y ysto tigate ‘beats gooss ed od at saluekiuag af sexed 
‘stGliteoance To yiiiseo edietop 
peien yoig gubot ingen atid see ,welv Yo tatog elds mor’ 
Sea Oigen, 26 eon isS,abilave! ed? (eliepeta To ends? 
| inal doonte ed Litw gay ceirxet to. Ligh yshQ ede bas 
et eee wean tostidore ef 3 | dofdy vd awepm odd Yo Usi 
DakterIne ond nO .eeengsen wsidiw enaldeoinnmios 
mane evi a hosideddbe exe vov, bus ,ofomte exon 
. VeGROLIsc neo tacO1g Lpwe 
3 am fas gard at gilugetiio eldatebianoe tadionA 
b dooter ayer Le sant en0 ,dolitieoques * 26 asieg 
© enaiseo APet wilds te Rak Bataed end te moievo dmed 
b ghtas Sige a6 gloagod .bastisva gost, aniseed 
rela baste Jo woivoeiloo oda Yo env low BHO 
‘ dor abewollot: ed.od Jon, edlgqtake ae 
je bos aettias dzeek gs. adit saala gee gwan 


Pealsares off .2 toc eld af addgiiyda vd 
butte nedgid & ylekaaisa jissweae ef aold 
8 d§ tot beainos ean doldsitanos: Jahd To. eons 
| all paltiers elfin:.acldiseogmoo ai besaxe 
baa bitew sidt. Torre Jadd nso eonedh se Ts see 


as ‘shible veie cat Hisw OF ss aoigiew ; > witha. of 


“ee Bate aie 6 agen a) 28 3ae2 ly seg 
pore Y ania See agit Svan Geum envadd: tedge neh se 


are im 20. e fied end, mo} eeleseco Jatooge ul booy Ria 


rah. ey aitken. ait ¥, ee foaie ay bae oe eae 


Om ecens bia) Wgwiilivd taeoaibs io) addhin- 


‘igtasogei Beik \yeeomatemgagic emon af, ade ie 
sere e. ee pani tiseet: viswen, 918, ened a. fhe ae 
ee ae at . Lewobatw 
hgta Sai iaso oets at nohtatehtenoe LAs 
205 A aiptewieet to. [evonsy wese) afd)» htisiasa 
art: 3 os Udeadt ghost whites 
mhHe Yliese oo Yer 9 Jam asd dada. phen F 
® baokibas gag idicirohs feaha Jad! ee Aut ae 
fo lhege Too%, 1HOR: youre. aystle Jon), aia 
£89) patios mons ieee row} ae aoe he anes 
fh 2s wend, iyo 
Cada WO ieee a ole er 
picks: Sia aad 


74 q 
connected and the simpler the means found for this,: the clear. 
er and pore fully understood will be the plan.) Ensure the cone 
munications but. without. excess of porticos,: galleries,: etc.) 
Here in particular is to be recognized Simplicity as an exe a 
gquisite quality of composition. 

From this. point. of view,: see the magnificent, plans of chee 
Baths of Caracalla,: the Invalids,: Palace of justicel Figs: 32). 
and the City Hall of Garis; you will be struck by the simplic- 
ity of the means by which the architect. knew how to ensure the 
communications withour meanness.: On the contrary,: they are 
more simple,: and you are authorized to give magnificence to 
such proper communications.: 

Another considerable difficulty is that, of lighting all 
parts of a composition.; One must always reject, the too conven 
ient. custom at the beginning of the 19th century of providing 
lighting from overhead. Consult oa this point. the very cari= 
cus volume of the. collection of srand prize designs--curious — 
as examples not to be £6llowed.:; You invariably see there ~ 
compact. plans with at, least, three and often four or seven 
widths of adjacent, buildings,: all these possibly only lighted 
by skylights in the roofs,.: No aeration possible,: and suffoca- 
tion is assured; stransely a bitter struggle or the disappera 
ance of that, generation was required for the window to be tol. 
erated in composition,: while awaiting its recognition as. ™ 
essary. Whence came that error? This would take too much » 
to show;. I. mention it. to warn you,: that you still suffer fr 
it: even today you sometimes project, audience halls Lignted 
by skylights, a pure monstrosity. Hass a 

Remenber thatwe must have light, and air. Vertical Lighting e 
is good in special cases,as for the halls of museums; — ler. ‘ 
able in some circumstances,: when impossible otherwise; bat, 
all these are merely exceptional,: and save exceptions, ase 
windows! . me 

This consideration is also combined with another,: n 
sential, the easy removal of rafnwater.; A good composi’ 
essarily lends itself to a rational plan of bhe roofs,: 
made that, the water may be easily and certainly remove 
ing all internal down pipes and long gutters for wabe 
not always study your roof plans,: but your ground flo 
fixes them and may show their complexity or even impo 
ity.: Observe the plan of the Invalids (¥Fig,: 41); this 


, ow =~ - aaY >) wee 4 erm /ifpe* ads Lal ri [elm .@ na ’ ~~ a ie 7 
A aig site ir met Bi pg vie Ae ie j si : 
! i i 


fi alia ae ae 

M004 Gh beet Koy bis .a0dtiI6H Foo!) bavoyy ods ‘Yo 

C mat ‘mele int asise eds Yo! tovoue Weee iy Syord 

« Aagevgyld "6: boos 66 anived es wedted at Jud evol 

<b bial oe yase bos taelo'’s ‘tnt ame 

M aa, Pa da isvaewie witohiquts 14 

Fk sig bide ate’ ¥o Waelq svoy Cliw isbyo deiiw wi 

ae ae Bo6p dod cefoy on evs e198 Sebo od HoOtsiAog We 

hein swords Jeom edi bas .cmavisdria edd to bat 
@asortin “te woitos ¢ vino et noltiacogned uBedewet rapes 

SS tOm ely ak eT0K ebel¢ ast wala’ yreve ai 

be. ‘Sou ets Bure y soala feqicnivg atid “OT eos fq. 

fide Vaee ao: abaeash gait Taevis od FF Tede dakdw 

io eit VAS GOiV Weel iteaseV Yo sosleo edd evroddd 

ten edt to ‘eawweo, Of ai Sei1s9 Liew 2) donod Yo 

| peane I ou ‘hewad reeves * eda to e158 te rg! 


an ee yi oy teint idx duh titwes al 
aerks Wo seth? sey [ents aslsstscd yveu & 
EH) fc irvoes Saf bea .Oned teddo sid 20° 
own ed's To Jised is 6idnao ed) aredi af 
edd ean Il tsi goY 3h. Brakes Gai 
“file exoked dod Gedea ever ire ‘at? ig ite 
¥ debodtatebng Yilsnotesoos svet udoodidos 

waa sot vd ween denid ent ai 009 ed gege get 


Bay Helle - ANH ibid. @%8 Noldisogqaco views nt 
ita oe hon a ce ihanal TO noissogerg bd 


Balle etd eee: aqeiis esti fata pine tages 
Pew) fexcvoctdo, Pinvs qietwese ‘neo ‘ed yma tsitive 
h geradati (saosseg no gael toe,Jo nhedd hatvead Btov 
eet Hees Mpeteiti Isrsnek o viavem eh gs! 
3 “elo sei ited 20) dea? “a Yiseroee) o@ 
* Reka whruey eotyyue | 
IVtiete tos bh tae Sewi hadnt’ 
Sa yer & ke debated iad BS ha axk saat! 


. Aah 
ee oui? it 


ety | am “ne nl ae xtra ren ea, 


75. 
of the ground floor suffices, and you need no roof plan to 
prove the easy removal of the water.) This plan is not ingen= 
apa but, is better as having no need of ingenuity. How it, 
cilitates a clear and easy composition of the roofs (Piss: 
en Simplicity always! 

In what order will your plans of different parts of a com— — 
position be made? Here are no rules but good sense,: understan¢ 
ins of the programme, and the most thorough knowledge of the © 
reauirements.; Composition is only a series of sacrifices,: 

In every plan is a place more in view,: more central,: the chie 
place.: For this principal place parts are not lacking,: to 
which shall it be given? That depends on many things.) 

Observe the Palace of Versailles(Fig. 34),.; The chief place © 
of honor is well marked in the centre of the marble court,: im 
the middle of the projection toward the lawns of the garden. 
Mansard placed there the royal chamber and the Srand gallery 
for receptions; the chapel is placed in a wing,: magnificent,: © 
but really sacrificed to the royal majesty.; Yet Louis XIV was 
a very Christian king,: yet. first, of all was the King.; 4 

On the other hand,: see the Eseurial (Fis.; 35);- the ce uy 
is there the centre and heart of the composition,: all conv 
ing toward it.i Yet Philip Il was the king of that. realm on 
which the sun never set-- but. before all a Christian cee bell 

Architects have occasionally understood=- perhaps hinted -« 
whet must be put in the first, place,: and what, 20st eS 

ficed.' Le 

In every composition are sacrifices, that, one must, know O 
‘bo proportion or graduate. In the secondary parts or sbante 
must be judiciously placed all that should yield to the | : 
cipal parts.) And just there does the architect incur ‘so muel : 
eriticism; he can scarcely avoid objectors,: who garefully @ 
void basing their objections on personal interests, Oh wet 
It is merely a general interest that inspires. themea and ale 
so secretly the fact. of being lodged in the Dth sto ; on 
service court.’ on 

Everything just said is related to a mney 
and useful arrangement.’ a 

But this is not all, and we are not utilitarians.; A. P 3 
that. sees only the useful in architecture without, also desi 
ing to see the beautiful, renounces all civilization) am 


i 


, 


; ere, ‘ ‘ oe monk 

iD ae ; as bi ey 7 : rh ae Ms Ae : f ‘ ¥y ' 7 ; 
mee a - UE Pgh OY hes % 

it ae ’ 


ae edad bea bed ~-ddord A¥eid edd Yo see ode 
ids evetl I hah sane tned sa wit a¢apHoo of bedaiw oale 
Big’. eokoves. ume. evel elores bisow yeild os tvasise 
c eerirrer:: od nott gacm aabidteoguco aot 

| peAae pies end ei ald? sydeeed 29 Hotiane 
ee ‘wheieeelg ef. Loteor 
petslacgace ithe 6 enited od vrmeesoen. dfial 

oF book 8 etpene onle [liv af dnd ,book ed sath 


it a ita Shak 
ne & iedos eng yet beidiol ed dose Lliw enolse ago’ 


menctgeases hotrepoa pucivocio1g said ddiw ber 
ier ai dois iia ti xeonthiad snsgele 10 O99 breKe 
=< wod wood HOY, 1r Ki tetad bas. :odeatiios Sven 
a Xe d8e%S yrev. 6 eJdis. bieoo 2 Kolsipodnos Ahoy 
La aysuses ‘ot e780 Jed baidantbni iden enotate 

ery ate e and eveotbhaz iliw Tine tis ines 
peated. (3s «Gil ) isowe4 te emg) to 
% 9), OAigee) 6308 Jo. yoddA edd bas (VE 

hl eeedd wotody at inemaenriedse 
meieatt esicnoce Jed s RE ERRNGD LES 


} Widoe gate g to noteasaona sate «4 bas sone 
Serre Pivoke use trey, Odie) ted vxtennyd 


is been, ak taiw te udbdaloges edd -et vademaye 
™ “yatiisiopes gas citledas eicviidsaye jsoneds 
id 3o emolov devi? odd beaotiner tent aver J 
dd eisic 6, howinn n seed. ‘enbak?..eveds Lliw cox 
eds ‘ae hte: oe spvengd @ bee leatbaiinaol 


va et 


ebegay Gone ead aitad to diel wid. bait 


aX iidsacits easel Yok eeob etid shioviS of. aud 
; fi Legion ing ac. ngewsed sods tea ltb: edd 


P nF 
ra eA 


g 


\ bi saat Oe Bagi Ne ea stdaeacaos reddo daew 
bes x gyn sneahtrnicte bates 


CE aad ag 08 ‘tote bd» yates Pree ay 8 bar 


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mere. Aree: wee Ly besenen yilotlide' yd bedtaolors > 


ae ae k hie paitoweye baked Od: fiew 256.8% 


aimee feeadve rae as ‘sed gia au 


# Boob Yeu? grid ae. ebson?.ens- tod wt iveed. @ 


ad Aadsons wk Nisiney wknd y Vitae: eit, 
fenies. don aK, ppted a: ade fsgtatecnya 


76 
wrote a singular essay,: in which he shows that, the Spartans ~ 
the men of the black broth-- had and desired an art, but they 
also wished to conquer thw Athenians.; And I believe this,: sine 
otherwise they would merely have been savages.: 

Your compositions must then be controlled by another Neuetll 
eration of beauty. This is the undying principle,: that the 
useful is pleasinsg.: 

Is it necessary to define a beautiful composition? It. will 
first be good,: but it will also ensure a good appeerance.: ; 
Your salons will each be doubled by the total effect,: if you © 
know how to arrange beautiful perspectives; your courts,:if 
prolonged by skilfully managed views; your facades,: if arran= 
Sed with fine projections,: accented recessions or pavilions, — 
energetic or elegant outlines; if all that is varied. and you — 
have contrasts;. and briefly,: if you know how to be artists in 
your composition.; 1 could cite a very great. number of compo= | 
sitions well indicatins that care for beauty; all actually ex: 
hibit, this. I. will indicate but, a few examples; the House. 
of Panza at. Pompeii. (Fig.: 36),: Palace Barberini at Rome Co 
37). and the Abbey of Monte Cassino (Fig. 38); there is only 
embarrassment in choice; these examples. suffice to show what 
is a composition,: that, occupies itself with beauty of diet, 
ance and a wise succession of perspectives.: | 

Symmetry,: but, with variety,: should generally be sought) But 
it. is well to define symmetry.} be a 

Symmetry is the regularity of what is seen at a single | 
glance; symmetry is intelligent regularity.) LAM 

IT have just mentioned the first, volume of the grand prize 
You will there find a great, number of plans thus anraasediel 
longitudinal and e@ transverse axis divide the plan ‘at Same 
quarters,: that may be exactly superposed; not @ Pi et aa 
or less.; That is not symmetry but nonsense.: ‘yd 

‘The City Hall of Paris has each facade symmetrical; “th 
a beauty, but. the facade on the Quay does not. repeat that. 
Rue de Rivoli;. this does not lessen symmetry,: any nore tien, 
the difference. between the principal and rear facades, On 
the contrary,: this variety is another. beauty.; Versailles is 
symmetrical at. a Slance,: but, not actually s0,; and tng ‘same 
with other monuments. eel 

Symmetry is incontestably a beauty,: and donsnente compen 


sndoweg Wheres ans dolite 
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77 
sition can rarely renounce it without, detriment.) That is a= 
Sain a rule in composition to be heeded.; From you. is gener= 
ally required but one facade flor a project, and you will 
consciously foresee that one with or without, symmetry; but. 
the others are not studied and are implied in your plansp si og 
side and rear facades, those on courts,: all at, least may be 
studied. In composing your plang,: all these are to be compose 

This leads me to diseuss this phrase,: "a beautiful plan”;: 
This is concise,: and one must, understand by it a plen,: that. 
permits and promises beautiful interiors and facades.: Some 
forty years since were freely mentioned plans beautiful in 
themselves without, regard to ell the rest.) Outlines of plans — 
were spoken of,: as almost symbolism in horizoatal projection. 
The type of this bathos is the plan of bee Palace of the Legi 
of Honor with five projections forming a star,: and a circular 
hall at the centee,: just what Psison Mazas was to realize som 
years later.: HALE , 

Indeed there are beautiful plans and the expression is quit 
legitimate, but. just. like books,: beautiful by what isread 
therein,: or a musical score,: beuatiful by its contee sae 
not. by the arabesque appearance of the notes.’ ihemrdio 

fo the general appearance of the composition and particular 
ly to symmetry is freely contrasted the picturesque.) Thus the 
Pelace of Justice in Paris justly passes for one of - the pict- 
uresque elements of the capital,: with its Palace of S.: Lovis % 
of Horloge,its waiting hall,: and the S.; Chapelle in the | 
midst, of its buildings of the three or four last. cons eal 


CPigky 393.; ‘i ae 
I. adore the picturesque, and certainly the picturesque nost 
strongly strikes the foreigner arriving in the Clty.) oa 


But. one does not compose the picturesgque,. which is only con 
posed: by the works of the Sreatest artists and by time. Seve 
en centuries have labored and made their imprint on this: al 
ace of Justice;. who would dare to flatter himself with: doing 
all that alone and in a day? One composes the Place de la i 
Concorde,: when one is an artist, of genius,: but neither the — 
Place S.: Mark of Venice,. the Place Signory in Florence, 2 
of Siena, nor the Capitol of Rome.; (Fis. 40). ih 7 

I go farther; do you desire the picturesque? Do not. ‘seek 

- Not. thus may you perhaps have it,, The last. centuries a 


mre? to Gia yscines ditt ak kntten guodete, fear 
b perio) Mose Sos aud extol oh ‘“wanppeintolg ef 
mAs ait ad Atht eid mark aoly ie Svlesovone. hilt 
siamob a) Bubiigo! ..oupserw sonic et Sanh andor bre 


ae bln exbolwo? to {arhetted edt Jondizod 
e les olbendote ae, neds ai: Coldw yadzag owt edd Jo 


G Reupaertaseig ods ylisusos 2t medd data said 

; j a9, knee’ yin itay add ton asob fed .gdo rind. 

|  Seteeas od Aigdo bos ehivoia cao e® dolde 
eee epke gnidion gl vio Lose etondathed aiet 

si bezoth Lista bas fennsoe disor edd YO galanehs 

Ne OU 
ptg pedd. ta, viueed sbuadennin Ne ,Bs onede avel dduoe 

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i date seoiets iprienss denM 


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ahs f bike ; : i f a) ae ? y = ve 
. . ' ' 


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78 
completing the great edifices of the past. did not, feel re- 
stricted to a dead sytle; the Palace of Justice was contin- 
ued without making it 13th century,: and the Palace of Justice) 
is picturesque.) At Notre Dame and many other churches,: you. 
find suecessive styles from the 12th to the 15th centuries-- 
and Notre Dame is pictureaque.; Nothing is more so than the im 
terior of the Cathedral of Toulouse with the lack of coherence 
of its two parts,: which is again an archeeological anachronism 

But. what, then is actually the pictureaque? 
Variety. And does not, this variety depend on us architects, 
which we can provide and ought to ensure? | 
This legitimate variety is nothing else than character,. the 
identity of the architectural and moral impressions of the ; 
orosranme.; | ie 
Doubtless there is an intrinsic beauty of the programme; we 
admire the suverb vestiges of monuments whose purpose is Une 
known to us-? But beauty is not, a commonplace quality,: and re 
the search for it has no right, to dispense. with characters; 
The magnificent forms of a palace would be ridiculous if ape 
plied to a prison; applied to a school or industrial structuar ‘ 
they would mm, be out of place.: : a 
The character. of edifices is then a condition of their dix) 
versity,: and preserves a city or a period from monotony of tee 
structures... The architect must at. need adopt. abneg sete 
also resist, temptation.’ | Sper il 
Fhe search for character is further a relatively deinen 
eeption.: Antiquity has many edifices clearly characterinedy: 
but, id does not seem to have made character a chief merit; 
thus the Parthenon,: temple of the Athenian deity, and the Pre 
pyleum,: the military portico of a citadel, present the same - 
clements; likewise the halls of the Baths and the Basilica o 
Constantine.: Hith the middle ages and the Renaissance, con= 
tinued by modern architecture,: character is more impressed 0 
churches,: Monasteries and convents,: whose architecture iss 
special, also on city halls,: palaces,: then on adninistrati 
judicial and educational buildings..: oe 
This is not. surprising, being the confirmation of a) frog 
ly stated law.: Since the Christian era,: men have become pore 
varied and also more complex; let. us not complain,: for ai 


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a | ites edohensa ST a 

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| Ge) PSertbotbak to ket, rine 
| Mictday tins ‘go hereon et Ageeh 
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and another possession of the language that we speak.) 

Finally,: to sustain amd suide you,: there is tradition.: I. 
know that to speak of tradition one passes for being behind: 
the time; it is a present tendency to scorn tradition.: That — 
is to despise longs efforts continued throush centuries by the 
industrious generations preceding us.’ Generally,: this is to —| 
seek to conceal ignorance by affecting to scorn the unknown | 
in order to avoid the effort necessary to know it»; t 

Preserve yourselves from this error.: Progress is slow and | 
must be sure.: Whoever proceeds slowly is sane,: and whoever: 
is sane soes far. 

Do you know what is very strong and original? It is to do | 
very well, what. others have merely done well.: ' | 

The finest epochs wpe those in which tradition was most, ren 
spected,: when progress was continuausly oerfecting,: evolution | 
and not revolution.: There neither is nor has ever been spone | 
taneous generation in art; between the Parthenon and ‘the tem= 
ples preceding it are only shades of difference,” 

Furthermore and especially for studies is tradition prec-= 
ious.: fo dare to become free from it,: one must, judge it,: and 
to do this,: it. must. be known. Tradition is a paternal patria 
mony; to dissipate it independently,:one risks finding hime 
self wanderins at, random; at least. one. must know how we ensu 
himself of another shelter. 1 


This seems to be what. may be said in sonenuie on composition 


ane oe, ea, 


sansa SSS 


pila se, — stag a alae 


let, us summarize it.: 
You must be faithful to the programme,: be permeated by tte 
and see properly the proportions of the prosramme and the 
scale to b& observed... | | 
The location entirely varies the expression of the same oro 
Sramme,: and it is the same with the climate,: y 
Every architectural composition must. be constructable, : von ri 
every project not so is redically nothins.: Every project more 
difficult. or complicated in construction than ne Ores is” | 
either bad or mediocre.: 
. Truth is imposed on architecture,: for every architectural — . 
/ftalsity is Nese one vie these falsehoods is hs by 


pression ts sie evtiae arte: . | 
Actual solidity is ee 


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80 e, 
Win your compositions provide the necessary communications,: 
but. as simply as possible and without, excess.: All parts must, 
be well lighted and aerated; rainwater must. pass away readily. 
Composition proceeds by necessary sacfifices.: A composition 
will at. first be sood,: but. must. also be beautiful.; You must. 
then compose,: keeping in view both the utility and beauty -of 
the edifice. And as an eleme nt of beauty bu variety,: you 
will seek for character, 
Thus you will have done in architecture what, depends on then 
architect.: For it cannot, be denied,: that, the great architect © 
of an epoch is its social condition.; The practitioner con- ‘ 
structs,: but he neither creates nor controls the aspirations 4 
of his time,: but, can only adapt himself best to the. interests. 
of the art,; Above the works,: the special programmes, there ing 
@ programme of programmes,: even the civilization of each cen= 
tury,: faith or unbelief, ‘aristocracy or democracy,: severity 
or relaxation of manners.; There is a common bond emphasizing — 
the identity of the art and the civilization of Greece; at ; 
Rome you recognize the increasing exaggeration of pomp and of 
magnitudes,: the architecture of the emperors,: so different i 
from that. of the republic by its compositions and programmes, « 
far more than by its style or mouldings. Does not, the Se) Chaps 
elle or Notre Dame here: recall the thought, of S.: Louis aains § 
the personification of the pious middle ages? Versailles and 4 
Place vendome are Louis XIV himself,: and later in the. reach F 
tion contemporary with the school of David,.its great. architee 
is Rousseau,. as Chateaubriand is the architect, of the succeeds 
ing counterreaction,: just. as we ourselves are carried onward ; 
by a general and complex movement,: that results from our, ideas 
Hanners,: and our existing civilization. Today our social cone~ 
dition is both democratic an@ refined,. its instincts. being 
both utilitar&an and luxurious. You are too much in it to: bere 
able to escape from it,#= and besides, why should you isolate 
yourselves in an anachronism? Be the artists of eb i lies ene “| 
-- that may always be a noble mission.; 

After having explained to you composition in its ieee 5 
Sreat, lines, I. wall speak to you now of proportion,: or perhaps 
rather of proportions, ; 


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\ Ba 
CHAPTER IV.: GENBRAL\P ROPORTIONS, 
SUMMARY,: -- Definitinn of proportion.-- Lestaall pel trod 
ditional proportions.+- Architect \is master and responsible 
for proportionse+=Proportion in composition; examples.; -- e | 
Difficulty in the study of parts implying false proportions. 
Reciprocal proportions of interiors and exteriors,: of courts 
and of halls.-=-Proportions of the same object, according to ; 
vicinity or distance.+-Sxamples of identical compositions 


ix 


diversified by proportions.’ x 


| | 
; ; | 
% : ; 
I must. now speak of peoportions,: and it. is first, DROPS aRry: Z 
to define theme: . % 4 
The word proportion is borrowed from nethenatios,: im which 4 
it. is. synonymous with equality of ratios; in an absolute sense 
the ratio is the quotient, of the division of one number by. 
another; in a relative sense,: the proportion ene from 
propriety of ratios, i. ¢e-,: the harmony. between the differ- 
ent, parts of an entirety.; In the first, sense,: you would say 
that the height of a certain entablature is een 
of the column; in the second sense, that all parts of a ede 
ifice or. of a certain part, of an edifive are admirab: 
portioned to each other; likewise as you say for a 
statue,: the head is assumed to be comprised eight 
the total height;. or indeed that this statue is : 
tioned,: or on the contraby,: the arms are too shor 
too long; hence the expressions, "to be or not, to - 
tion,” i.e.,.to please or shock our instinct for Ba 
But in sculpture or pahnting,: you have an assured 
ture as @ criterion of proportions.: It is not, so Wi 
are proportions from logical deductions imposed as 
reasoninsg,--always with the very wide latitude requ: 
the arts;-- there are also. very generally accepted 
imposed by general taste,: and that are however onl} 
of the eyes or the mind,: whose permanence is in $01 
heritage transmitted from one Seneration to anoth 
Authors that have sought to establish a dogm 
portions,: to create a sort of hieratisa of. architec 
tried to give a solid basis to their theories,: have 
to. invoke science,: have sought, cabalistic combing 
terious properties of numbers,: or again ratios. SI 


Be. 


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82 


finds between the numbers of vibrations formins harmonies. 
Purely chimerical.: Others content themselves by proclaiming 
a legacy from antiquity with Sreater truth,: but they receive 
this as an indisputable revelation,: as if the artist must. 
first. refuse for himself the liberty of a man! | 
Abandon these chimeras or superstitions.; In the study of 
proportions is a sreat part of traditions -- custom if you 
prefer,: but also all the shades of the art,: all the search 
for character; all the study of which you are masters and are 
free,. on condition of knowing that in art as in ell things,: © 
if liberty be most. vivifyins,: it, likewise imposes most duties, 
As your freedom inereases,: your responsibility becomes greater 
Proportion is at first and primarily a quality of composi- © 
tion. It. is unnecessary/to say,: that between the different 
parts of your composition are just proportions between what — 
should be srand,: medium or little.: And do not CGount too much © | 
on study to ensure that proportion; study can indeed ab Gone 
thing,: but within limits imposed by the orisinal composition. 
For assume that you have a court of honor,: whose length cor-~ 
responds to that of two lateral courts on each side; if in the 
lateral courts of your composition have been placed too many — 
things, the study might, demend their enlargement; but the © 
study perhaps also demands that. your. court, of honor should not 
be increased,: What. is to be done? Compromises,: sides badly 
divided,: and all because in the primary composition the ense: 
of proportion was defective. Seams ea | 
It is impossible as you see,: for me to give you rules in- .y 
this respect. Proportions are infinite,. and an example will Lj 
serve better,.: ; a hy 
Observe the magnificent, plan of the Hospital des Invalids — 
(Fig.: 41),. and assume this grand entirety not deserted: as NOW, 
but occupied by several thousand old soldiers,. Nothing as a 
mean in this plan and nothing eecentri: c yet. unusual propor 
tions are found.: A vast court of bateaedy nae cll a public : | 
square,: imméBnse porticos that, almost become a waiting hall bee 
fore the chapel.; This court, must, contain the invalids at. Pew 
views): processions,: in all that recalls the profession of armé 
In these porticos the inmates of the hospital walk with crutet 
6S8,: pass in litters or little carriages. The chapel is a real 
church, because. its inmates are numerous,. because it is in 


cae rea Base gidg ni ok pipe lo abe ed 
it RTSEOTE 96: ‘the foceno sid ne ldiob AL we), Qdne 1734 
. Bact noenes 1¥9 agi iknived OAs es ge baticsmoe® aAnied 
1 ee ef fuera. Ye ieisad 6d aot esata ene. 35 Lied! 
‘ ee td ih an | (enoologeh go lvtars¢ 
ae. a sonend to as very $o mobiod edd ite. gon niega: 
. Go does (,pnoidiogo7g. fancidqsoxus lo eventiede hasty 
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dav seeeben ayawic ai modw 103 ,27acdil Ho 68900 \ge8 to 
. Tied 4 si8d ouos oeea ever I ylavons afdnod.-fas 
A | ‘lyads en6 baeo 
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eleten bie Ysebucesa') ledionizg af. dacw song he 
x et Hose jatadé 49% eleos, to gesas qitas ee 
| ‘ OtH doe tows 
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As OG ss GB @ton aot Stimpeas eaiTOs tHi Oe 
aah feo 903 wadT nGhdé ‘idenommek To Bean: aie 
raat. moet S Anisgae “cok wessene onved Ligqug 4 4¢7 
C Whats GAT. .eoivase 1oL.2eseeeo gion Lertupesr 
core Pi RRO TeeP lO ets Aoi) ast, enom sitar! ¢ 
seven Ligh VGGy i, HOCeOG OMee ed TOS Devikoet e418 
PES HHA Wasnons vom Re RERR anh Be Jitiend O42 he ome : 
nEQY, exe @ ficagiedi Sah bia os Shthrabos Yiss Rem 
8. ‘4g VOCmn ts. ferge oe to? eleven, Sasoy Voce dagoy 
ad mids toe f @ Past netral.ed Llin idinect at porte 
Batidove: mo yseoy bas Jaehive ef gift [ie dead Vee 

nee send) a let shee Atalay te oe eae 


te Mad: OES WON. cn Od ast: uid ‘iy Ie 


aie sii heatiexs aiiai eved 
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83 | | 
the age of Louis XIY,: In this chapel the Dome as of great. in=§ 
portance,: as it, doubles, the chapel and scarcely belongs: to it 
beins somethins apart, and having its own reason for existena 
it. will be the place for the burial of great Senerals,: w while 
awaitins Napoleon,: : 

Again not, at the bottom of the court of honor are those i 
grand stairways of exceptional proportions,: each occupying an 
entire buildins.:; Because these stairs serve for. infirm men, i 
often borne on litters,. for whom is always necessary a broad 
and gentle ascent; I. have. seen some take a half hour to des= — 
cend: one story! | an 

And in this entire plan before readins a note,: you see at, 
a glance what, is principal,: secondary and merely accessory! | 
No need of compasses or scale for. that., Such is proporkipn in 
architecture. | 

These proportions are reasoned out, and dod not, come from 
pure instinct., Assume a boarding school,: where a certain 2 
number of pupils sleep. at. the same time,: eat, together,: and 
are in classes or studies at, the same time,, For. each of a 
divisions do you need four equal areas? Evidently not » for the 
dormitories require much more space,: as you will see ribhout, | 
the need of demonstration. Then for. meals,: as if the space | 
for a pupil be no greater for eating than working,: yet are | 
Pequired more passages for service., The study room demands 
a little more area than the elass room; if recreation halls 
are. required for the, same persons,: they will never be large 
enough to permit the necessary wolveeeani tee again all that, | 
may vary according to whether the pupils are young ehildren, 
youths or young people. For an equal number,: a room for. a oi 
class in drawing will be larger. than a lecture room.) You may — 
say,: that, all this is. evident,: and that to teach im, is. to a | 
break in an open door. How is it, then,. that, you bring y our pre 
fessors compositions so fregquently,: that cannot, (be st ' 
because of nonsensical proportions? eee 

I could multioly examples, but, Ib; is. . useless: The » serena 
al thing is to make you see that, a programme is reasoned 
one should not stoners himself be the pega ta bag should: 


ee 
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ps etetito ef0. pelasenon! oe fe .tikaidiy «io @healne sanges cov 


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84 . . 
others,: but. approximative in what degree?. Then something may 
appear. as a tyoe of medium dimensions,: also something smaller) 
than the rest.; Between these types are sSradations. If you 
have properly seen this Sradation of proportions,: I do not 
say that you will necessarily produce a good composition, w= 
there are too many other things yet,—~ but, you will not make © 
one of those compositions,: which cannot be studied,: for exane 
ole,: where the great court is no larger than a hall,: and where 
you acnnot enlarge one without also increasing the other, per: 
petuating the initial @éfect.- 


That error. of proportion between courts and halls is very | 
frequent.: How many plans have been made with a court of hon= 
or. continued by a hall of equal width. (I do not. say length,: 
which would not, be unusual).; How frequently has been repro- © 
duced at the School the plan of Garnaud's project, for a gone $ 
servatory,: seductive by its simplicity,: and which is neverthe- 
less impossible.: A court, of honor is always a court in the nin 
of its author;. consider its width and ask yourselves if it t 
“ever possible for a hall to have an equal width. I. have cite 
ed the Invalids; the church is a wide hall,: but including side 
aisles,: it has nearly one third the width of the court, of hone 
or; its nave in the clear is almost, exactly one fifth,: not. ‘ 
including the porticos.; This width of the nave is com= t 
prised nearly, three times. in the width of the lateral courts.) 

Phe internal diameter of the Dome of the Invalids is” a little 
less than one third of the court. of honor, or a little more — 
than half the width of the lateral courts.: Be | 

At_ the bLuxemburs,: the senate hall is large,: yet, bo latera 
courts are added to its width and to those of the communicas 
tions adound it, to equal the width of the court, of honor (Fig. 
42).° aE * 
At the City Hall of Paris,: the great festal hall , not tnelad 
ins the Sgalleries accompanyins it,: is a little. more than one 
third of the averase width of the court of honor,: and” that. is | 
a vestige of a much smaller monument... With these galleries,. it 
slightly exceeds the half of that, averase width. = oe 

Here at the School observe the hemicyscle with its relation 
to the court precedins it,: the hall of Melpomene with its. req 
lation to the court of the Mulberry (Pig.43),: and. you” welt 
always find these widths. of halls less than eveh the wide s of 


ete ud 


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Woos ste voy mod qacse de “1D Ges B batted , vem reg 
Y deac & esiesda S6040 mebigtia nit tig. nege Mad. ai oex 
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fel Oepe ag ¥ lag: Seti ne met fod sebbowbo saded Si 


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, - ‘ Pe ih vie 
enthwesos ‘evlrev mi thE t Lert: 


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ao. BOO Laden hh Bhd Geer sed ne hio? Raadrco 


rine 


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Malle 
me" oF Hise gor idoroe et “ie asuo.edT 

seb as bis (goetroo af nadi¢eeenaxe eviveashl? 
Basits be oe noge ad sarin eviJog w vo FoR {do oe 
ioe 1% ne siettade eds etka ttecs RGALSetes i eeere 


3) Rowe ty &¢ eyew Le Sorel é¢fh fir duet evil fae gets. 20 


Hisoqore edi neve oe ls’ doo atte sab eth giao wou 
20 Stiivade: ste seti: end Soa bor oF site, Pox 


ee aswh eRe Be sen gs ec $2 quid aad eo 
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pd ved dy ta abies. $i ‘eviecaqp dans VOY ap, Ot: Wh 
weit oi ihdenid eT ee. S43 vy loos adh) c& gerd’) 


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et Sbiedas we Sb eh) WHOA, to vwetlede? 4noy LE eed 
eas 


io moele eha° 7 GO .ffed teidten <dd at: seiiege an | 
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aden Hodteieh fe wos 6 din cuss dodoes eno scehuae oy 


Beoen 4 i de ineunios ia to) dad eddy ro pangs #6).) 


not only its details,: bub, also even its oroporbions,: If ay | 
you desire to produce the idea of a statue of the dimensions 


85. 
the courts hardly monumental,: and this cannot be otherwige,: 
unless the court be designedly narrow,: as at the Collese de 
la Sapienza at, Rome (Fig.; 44L.: I. believe it, sufficient. to 
warn you of this without, need of a demonstration.: 

Another general principle in proportions is the consideram 
tion of the vicinity and surroundings. Make a very Simple ex= 
periment,: takins a vase or statue,: that. you are accustomed to. 
see in the open air in a garden; then observe a cast from ib. ® 
in a room;. you will assert, that. the cast is onexfeomuathmuch 2 
larger. object.; Thus at the Museum of Trocadero,: casts of all 
that you know in the open air will appear enlarged. Inverse= 
ly, what you usually see in a room will appear much smaller 
if taken outside. And in an interior the same object appears — 
much smaller in the waitins hall of the Palace of Justice : 
than in your atelier or room,: just. as outside it would seem | 
much smaller on Place du Carrousel thah in an ordinary street. 

The sense of proportion+« that I had reason to tell you is | 
so. delicatr-» varies according to lLocation;. or rather it is : 
always this sense of proportion,: that protests if there be aod 
contradiction between the dimensionssof an aires and its po» 
sition.: Ave 


The open air is sometimes said to. "devour" objochehe mune’ 4 
figurative expression is correct, and it is the samé with dis 
tance.” | 7 : 

If an object, or a motive must, be seen at distances somefimes 
Sreat,: sometimes small,: like the obelisk on Place de la Con- 
corde,: one cannot, take into consideration the natural results” 
of perspective; but if it must always be viewed from afar,: | 
as occurs on the top of a monument, it is necessary to. study , 


od a man,: you must. conceive it larger at the top of @ te wer 


| than at its foot.; Yet the man iuself is. nob. changed; when — 


on the top of the tower he seems a dwarf, and ee 
stabue seems a statuctte.- i. rhe 

But this consideration cannot modify necessary dinsnsions; 
like the height of the steps of stamrs or of a. balustrade, 
neither og which depends on the materials or laws of ete} : 
tion,. like the heights of courses, or combinations of 


pul evad Thee Risks soikeies 5 Tata 
Ce aged ontvaend ee dae J gre aoy/ er 
yeoe ye GRO Ehiddon tai} _ponedvegne aH a) RELIES 1) se 
Pabdeivooc sig 6 loge 42 ite voy oa Kier 2athiyaeve ein 

Mpidediiev uitatine Se 248 noldoorieadel ad anol iroge+ ey 


aaa ek ils Agiw wordttoquom Yo Rhepst oie edd, at P 
: Bact’ PIS HOY NBCEVOR ara ttanchiaiomw awit ..enorian Sa. 
ahs if - ape tis isinennnGoa «7 die Beinedarnryypey -* k 
7A, 4 ; 
pm Sibiowd BLAS Od Sn ibsopes “icliay, (wrad. witha. tex 


x: ay 1 wed te et bs é TH Kae pdpabes toes Yo Cota 
aildsise min . ee ig 7 AS “id mete po te? PA RD Sw eS tik eke. ENE oe a 


woh & : Ct a2 tof we at of p +* bd Dae 14 f 
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vibinay Sid Bo ebded ted t ~» (Ro hesinds ef? 
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86. 
eral advice here;I. shall have. done much,. if I develop in 
you the taste for observing these phenomena, and for thus ac- 
guiring the experisence,: that. nothing can replace.: ; | 

From everything said to you must result, the conviction,: that 
proportions in construction are essentially varbhable.: This | 
is the art itself of composition with all its infinite ecombi- © 
nations.) Two considerations govern you here, the prosramme 
or. requirements and the monumental effect., 

Kven this same variety according to this twofold oseshdenciil 
tion of requirements and of effect,: after beings established f 
in the sgeneral composition will be found.asain in the elements 
of that composition,: since to it, is added a new cause of vae- | 
riety -«- that also acts upon the composition by mediation of 
the elements -— that, cause of the variety is the mode of con—— 
structions: 1 

Then let, us study from the point, of view of proportions the © 
diversities resulting fren the elements of architecture then- 
selves.’ 

Here are two identical compositions,: and two staadene of 2 
these compositions,: that. are two masterpieces,: yet. as differ-_ 
ent, as possible. The superposed porticos of the Pheatre of Mar: 
cellus (Fig.: 45). and the superposed porticos of Palace Farnese 
(Fig.: 46).: You know them well enough without, any need jae ; 
to describe them; I. only call attention to their identity: 
arcade on the ground story with engaged columns of RES 
order and entablature,: then the second story composed of an | 
arcade with engaged Ionic columns and entablature.: Impossible 
to vary the description.: | ‘ 

Yet. what. a difference,: or rather contrast! That.cstebkeacgani 
and everyone.; But it, is not, sufficient, for you to state | 
this,: but to. see'’why.:. This contrast. is not in the. ornamenta~ — 
tion,: not. even in the mouldings,: buf particularly in the pro- 
portions.; [t-may be said that, it, is only in the proportions. — 

This principle may be stated here as an axion.: pie 2: Ae 

Fhe same motive of composition produces absolutely different 
expressions according to the proportion assigned to ib ‘by the” 
will of the architect.- >a Sie Wa 

Or in other terms,: the proportions studied freely by the are 
echitect, are ih the hands of that, artist the means for etrieee 
to his Se: the. art, character desired by him.: A 


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Which again becomes a asada that thea 
must, be master of his sips aie adits « 
erty,: there is no architecture.: | ‘Bip 
See sald far We are fron | Loaner formulas! 


if ratiiowal damgifage te Mh Fipst ean nied ‘no nied 
that cannot be violated with impunity. And it. te 
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—68B8 
CHAPTER V.. SPECIFIC, PROPORTIONS,- Cy i 
SUMMARY.»- Search for causes that must. vary proportions.; 
-- Application to orders takenas examples... -— Effective di- q 
mensions; superpositions; number of points. of Support; art— 
istic character.*-Study of proportions in interiors.+-Coup- 
led colonnadesw= Orders above a casement or a story.; Oe 
Proportions in doorways and windows,: derived from their ef 
fective uses; -«— Monumental. doorways, ordinary and service © 
door ways.;-— Application to proportioas of windows.; -- Connee 
ion of these proportions with heights of wtories. 
Proportions of arches,: -- Function of the arch.; =< Great, 
arches.; -~ Monumental proportions in arches.; Portals of a 
churches.) «= Proportions of arched windows.,: 4 
Proportions between the different elementd of an edifice,: © 
particularly of arches and plat-bands,: -- Exceptions.; -- in- 
finite variety. ‘ 
Conclusion that truth is the rule of properh ee 


are many.) / es 
First, the effective dimensions. Thus the porticos a a 
Madelaine(PFis.- 47) and those of the oval court of Fonte | 
bleau cannot, have the same proportions.: ae 
eas asa, RL: an example the: sate 


Avenser. at, ou I find in ipraserbeny be ae dtamebl 
Column,: diameter taken as the unit,: 100%.- A 
Space between two columns about i 2/5 diameter,: 
And. since the lower diameter of the column is 549 
Space between two columns is 8.3 ft. 

Length of the lintel is 14,2 ft. 

As you see, the passage is very niae and the am 
the architrave eegquire stones of unusual length. 

if we assume ps same Sidhe ah tpape to be applied i 


pievebox 1,64 Pte: 
Space between columns 2, ty arr 
Lensth of Liste? 4,0 ft.- 


As | He ape 
re Ni mc anew) eR ene 64 ealwedld: 
py yt, RS Oh 8 son kon edt lo seveneit. 


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2 ie note . ‘os ee SES “onelee, te: meo2dei0 , 
ep (ed tehOQS Qameloe cud neswied ogeaass 
ag to abir Songoe inet? veto t ene nt’ altsoldoavont ti 
pan ae as eae ht Coa tipo gaked 
toemunce ene5 efs 0g. Witis ton9e etor sa), eraade' sws 
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he OHI Ro @oort add to nckyisoqneque fnohs * 
oar endettogoss eaost ean dp en mege® ns 
y view), on iveni bag wevleeia0g 36 edice’ 3. 
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89 
Likewise for the Parthenon (Fis.-: 49).- 
Diameter of the column 6.:15. ft.- 
Passage between two. columns 8.0 ft.: 
Length of architrave 14,1 ft,- 
-If this proportion be applied to the Doric Temple of Cori: 
(Fis. 50),+-and there are smaller oness-we should have: =« 
Diamrter of column 92,52. ft.:; | 
Passage between two columns 3.02 ft, 

An impracticable. dimension,: the actual width of thw passage 
being about, 5.25, ft.- \ 

But others are more eonclusive; on the same monument,: the 
Portico of Octavia at. Rome (Fig.; 51),.a classical example. of 
olacing a small order beside a Sreat one,: one having the pro=~ 
oortion of about two thirds of the other, the intercolumnia- — 
tions are equal between axes of columns,: so\that, the passages 
between columns are greater in the small than in the large 
order.; 7 

I could multiply these examples,: taking anda s more: closely 
set than the Parthenon and more widely spaced thee ai Cori; 
I prefer to say to you, see the Madelaine and the oval court 7 
of Fontainebleau,: and you will recognize this law of propor= — 
tions.’ 2S eo 


~ In colonnades and in general in structures sore 

straisht arches,. the Sreater the effective dimensi 

portion is the more narrow; the smaller the dimen 

arrangement is more widely spaced. 

_ Since I speak of colonnades,: I. also desire you 

differences imposed bn case of superposed orders,: _ 
The proportion of a colonnade pleases you; attempt. bo super= 

pose it. by an identical repetition; not, only will the 

order appear apeee and Sibeiiian cr but the lower ord 


ed by a 
ions,: the E 


Al ci a 


‘reat superposition oe the Poon, Py: the: Sdupts oe 
and Faustina at Rome,: whose eS Saga aie 


iene ae day date’ Apbanie as detneiiy forming a 
the same point of support,: and cannot divert iteellt from the 
total proportion; again even with equality of effective dimen- 
Sions,. the column surmounted by another arouses the idea of © 

something smaller than the column alone oceupying! the entire 


ob bale cay. ib nsngebeso dadt bua sdot¥ise: ‘end %o sition 
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eRtenso Ilene add 

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90: 
height of the edifice,: and that consequently the mind desires” 
to see here a wider. proportion,. which is characteristic of ) 
the small orders,.: | 4 

As for the upper. column, your instinct, and taste imperious-_ 
ly demand one spaller and lighter than thet below,: in archi= © 
tecture a support should be larger in appearance than the sup= 
ported part.) If thinner,. the upper. column would also. be shorts» 
er, and hence the proportion of the intercolumniation to the 
column would necessarily be wider in the second,: than in the 7 
first, order,.: Thus are conceived the superposibions admired z 
by us,: like the three superposed orders of the court of the ; 
Louvre( Figs.: 25,: 28).: Te | 

But if this be true of intercolumniations,: it. will noe be 
so for entablatures,: for that of the second order crowns the 
whole,: and is the entablature for the entire monument,¢as wel 
as that of the upper order.; Thus it has. often been treated 
in a more monumental manner,: as on Palace Cancellaria at Ronee 
A Rig. 263.5 3 i 

In support. of these theories,: 1 can cite a very instructive” 
example, the rear of the court of honor of the Heole Militant 
by. Gabriel.: (Fis.. 54).: Beside a central pavilion decorated © 
by a colossal order extendins through two stories are ar- 
ranged porticos on the ground and second stories with super- _ 
posed orders.: The orders of these stories are formed of ene 
gased coupled columns,: and the intercolumniation differs lit=) 
tle from that. of the colossal order.; The entirety of the two) 
coupled columns of the two stories almost produces the illi- 
sion of a reproduction of the colossal colonnade of Wen ea 
tral pavilion.; 5A ee 

Another cause of variety in proportions in 061 oma ametal 
again the difference in number.: If a facade oti | 
a colonnade or projection be composed of two,: four,: Six,i | a 
eight or ten columns,: the proportion will become narrower 
the number increases, Two columns require a very wide properss 
tion,: eight or ten columns a very narrow one( Pig, 55).: In this. 
demand of the eyes,: there is auch tradition,: but. also much || 
losgie; the greater the number of passages offered, the narrowe-| 
er may be each one;. while if there be but, one, it aust, be 
wide as possible. Certainly one does not, formulate to hin- b | 
self this reasonins,: hut it, is often in a latent. state in our | 


7 


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91 : | 
impressions,: and when we seek. to produce favorable impress a | 
ions in the spectator,: we must, study these implied reasons,: | 
so as not. to shock him by a misdonception.: = 

Ags for the shades of proportions sought by you to strength- | 
en the character of the edifice,. they are infinite and are ~~ 
based on personal taste.; All that may be said here,: is that. 
the more you desire to arouse the idea of the monumental, the 
more should you retain traditional proportions in so far as 
compatible with yous composition.: | | 

On the contrary,: when fancy and caprice will be ee | 
you. will free yourselves from this severity,: which would be-~ 
come pedantry. All is a question of degree and of taste.: 

In interiors where colonnades are employed,: the proportions || 
should be less severe than on facades,: especially if then col- 


umns are before galleries. The chapel (Fis. 56). and theatre 


of the Palace of Versailles are very happy examples in this. 
respect,: as well as the engaged order of the antechamber be- | 
fore the chapel of Versailles.; ¥ 

You will also see that the study of coupled columns ‘demands 
proportions different. from those of isolated columns.: The 
two. columns then actually form one. point, of support, and. ‘the | 
intercolumniation would then be much too narrow if you give 5 
average proportions,: for then the solids and voids would ben 
come. nearly equal,: conteadicting the idea of a port ieee ‘Thus 
with quite similar dimensions,: the portico of the court, of u 
sion Soubise(Fig. 57). with coupled columns has a much wider — 
oroportion than that. of the Palace of the Legion of Honor (Fig 
58). with single columns.: 

The proportion will again vary if you have a colonnade. ove: 
a ground story;. observe an elevation of the Palace a ee 
de la Concorde (Fig. 59),: then conceal the ground story, as 
if the colonnade stood on the ground. You do not, recognize | 
the proportion,: it seems so wide. without, any reason cnevareee 
Phis is because it is counted with the piers of the basement — 
arcade., -—- It is that the study should be appropriate ‘a its 
location.’ 

If we pass tocdoorsrandowindows,. we likewise Pind. great \ 
riations in proportions for the same reasons. boa Val 

At first these openings appear matters of Seuist om that. ope 
cede all nd elit a door must be sufficiently wide and high, 


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92 
and alsoew-when not. particularly ornamental,--its dimensions 
must suit. easy opening and closings of its wooden leaves.: Vew — 
ry large doorways sometimes have bronze leaves,: like those of © 
the Medeleine,: and are exceptions; they are rarely opened and 
then by several men; but these conditions are entirely differ : 
ent from those governing doors in constant use.; | 

You will find in ancient, authors the indication of a propors 
tion for doors making the height twice the width. Here again 
this proportion cannot. be taken as a rule,. and I will demons- __ 
trate this by a familiar example. In our rooms are doors with | 
two leaves and with one leaf;. the width of one is nearly 
twice that. of the other,: yet their heights are necessarily 
the same.: 

In monumental doorways are sometimes very sreat, heights, : 
Like the doorway of the Temple of Vesta at. Tivoli (Fig.; 60), 9 
whose average width is 7.7 ft.: and its height, is 18.0 fo25% 
the ratio of height. to width then being about 2,55.: The cel- 
ebrated doorway of the Temple of Minerva Polias at. Athens has” 
a height almost exactly twice its width; that. of the Pemple © 
of Cori, (Fig.:.64). is a little higher; in general these door- 
ways are narrower than those in ordinary use; compare their 
proportions with those of most, carriage doorways,: and you a 
Will have no doubts in that respect,: and yet their widths. are 
nearly those of an ordinary carriage doorway.: Whence gone . 
the difference? 


This is. not from the. use made of the doorway, for from this” 
point of view the carriage doorway should be hisher than the. | 
doorway through which pass only persons on foot. The reason © 
is the desire of architects to produce a monumental impressior 

What, indeed is the monumental? A complete definition would 
Se complex,: but its principal character is the impression of. 
size perceived by comparins the edifice with its own grandeur; 
when you wish to make prominengt inp drawing this search ‘he 
the monumental,: you place there a human fisure,: ; 

The rectangular doorway soon finds a limit to its width, ‘: 
pecially in antique construction,: which is the span of the a 
lintel; to cover doorways 8.2 ft.; wide already requires anus-— 
ual dimensions of stone. But the height. is independent of rs 
this control, and then it, will be the height. from which is ae 
demanded the monumental expression,: and to obtain this the © 


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opening of the doorway was made higher than the actual door; 
then it, has an impost. or a fixed upper part; like the doorway — 
of the Pantheon at. Rome (Fis. 62),: higher and wider than the : 
actual. opening, that. is very significant from this point of 
view. You may see an analogous example at.the Madeleine,: 
whose doorway is inspired by that. of the Roman Pantheon, 
Then for. a far less solemn use,: you still require a passage 
of nearly the same width,: the purely orbamental height of 
doorways just cited will diminish; you then have doors with | 
two leaves opening their entire height. But even in interiors 
continues that law of greater height, reserved for a monument — 
al impression.; Thus at the Palace: of Justice, the sreat door-— 
way of the Court, of Assizes (Fig. 63). attains very elevated | 
oroportions.: Nearly the same are the doors of the royal cham-_ 
ber of Henry II at. the Louvre,.or a beautiful internal door= 
way in Palace Doge in Venice,.: These proportions are entirely 
exceptional in interiors,: where generally the heights of stom 
ries even forbid this for doors,: that are to be made wide. 
And the proportion becomes. Sreater than on monumental doors. 
for our smaller doors with one leaf,: and particularly the vi 
more modest.; Here the height, can scarcely vary; a minimum is 7 
always. required,: so that, one may pass. without bending the hea 
take 6.6 ft.; as the minimun.; If a door. be only 2,0. er ae ee 
wide,, you see that its proportion is higher than that, oh the 
door at Tivoli. cited just now..: . 
Thus elevated proportions for monumental doorways,: medium 
and sometimes low proportions for larsevordinarys doorspwag air 
‘very high proportions for the smallest doors,: are Indicated ' 
by necessity. To the study will pertain the duty of specify= 
ing each accordins to its destination,: then arranging: the pro- 
portion by its character.: ‘ t 
Many of these considerations also apply to windows. Thus 
the great, monumental wimdows of the court, of the courre, (Fide! 
64) have a ratio of 2.43 between height and width. Those of 
the Sround story are still higher, the ratio attaining 3 : | 
times the width. That is proper for monumental architecture, : 
for such prépertions cannot exist unless bi stories aren : 
high.: | , 
Indeed,: this consideration of the heaght of the stories fi 
determines the proportions of the rindows,; the wiathe sain 


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94 7 
vary within quite restricted limits; the window with two 
leaves. can rarely be less than 4,0 or more than 6.60 ft., @ 
wide(this is a little more than the width of thode of the Low 
Louvre),: while the heights may vary from equality to threefold, 

Thus you often see in the same edifice very varied propor= 
tions for the windows,: notably when superposed: in several sto-= 
ries., I cite here the superposed windows of the Louvre, of 
the. Mint, (Fis.; 65),: and of Place de la Concorde. Widths vary 
‘little in these examples,: the differences--and they are tes 
Siderablo -- consistins entirsly in the heishts.: ¢l ) 

If I have sufficiently indicated to you what is the arehtal | 
publ study,: 1. scarcely need tell you,: that it, is not, alone 
on the facade, that, will be studied. the proportions of your — 
Windowse: | 

The heights of the stories rule the heights of the Cadena 
but even in that relation are possible differences mee 
to whether your interiors are vaulted or have horizontal cE 
ings,. are wide or narrow. Every window is made to lisht an = 
interior,. and must, first, satisfy that programme, It. HHL be 
still different according to whether it, is to be a house win 
dow,: where one leans on it,: or rather a window lishting a ‘ag 
room intended: for. work or study; the window of 2 hospital 1 
have its special proportions,: as well. as the vindoaseiianlll 
school or off an acadeny.; ays eae 

Perhaps nothinb in arcBitecture lends itself to propor 
more indefinitely varied than the window,: from the m 2 
often wider than hdsh, as on the Library of Venice,: to the 
Farnesina,: Mansion Pourtales (Fig.: 66) by Duban,: Rue: Trone : 
or Palace Massimi,. whose windows are as slender as for ch 
ese’ But. search carefully and you will always find Be 
in these proportions «= at. least, in beautiful | edifices 
i sor reason will here gears be the outer: conformity of 


be satisfied by she archi becte: a 

In all that I have said relating to proportions, you 
apparent thr effect of construction on architecture,; 7 
not, an imitative art,: nor is it an art, of arbitrary con 
tions or primarily of esthetics.; It. is before and above 
the art of truth; the true has its needs bo satisfy,. aad 


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95. 
hands,: for there is the entire art.: j 

We shall again find yet, more varied proportions for arches,: 
To. properly conceive then,: it, is necessary. to. consider what, , 
is-an arch, its reason for existence and its funetion,- +2 

For centuries architecture had only the straight lintel for 
Spanning openings or porticos.: Thether of wood,: stone or mare 
ble,: great spans were impossible; extraordinary dimensions 
for the material were indeed attained as at the Propylemm of — 
Athens, where marble beams exceeded 19.7 ft;: still it, is a 
limited element, that. cannot, satisfy all the asp eee of 
architecture for srandeur.; . 

Then somewhere,: it scarcely matters where,: by a spr dash 
or. gradually was invented the arch,: 

You see the arch daily and habit, excludes: admiratdon,: but, 
reflect; it, id one of the great. discoveries of human Sgenius,. - 
one that freed art. and enriched civilization,: and I may add 
-- if the arch were produced ata single gush from a single 
brain -~ one of the most powerful conceptions of intelli- 

ence victorious over materials.: se oh os 

Leite the purpose of its existence is very clearly end re ‘ 
for creating openings wider than the length of a stone; its: 
function is the realization of great. openings,: eat i 

Never forget this starting point if we desire to wi lois 
ically proportions in arches,: a 

Thus inversely to lintels,: the arch may be said to ave no 
limits of width,. while its height, will sgenerally be governed 
by the same considerations as for rectansular openings,: the qa 
hedsht of stories or halls,: the possibility of closure,: ete.” 

So when I said’for rectangular openings,: that the impress ps 
ion of grandeur and monumental appearance is particularly in 
the height, I may say for arches, that, you will find that 
pression of Srandeur in their width. The niche,: the ondi betes 
arch, is always slender; the great arch is broad in oropor= — 
tions; see the arch at Rimini, the Arch of Titus, that o 
(Fig.: 67),. and the Loggia dei. Lanzi; at, Paris the old @ by 
of S.: Jean at, the City Hall,: the ancient Arch of Nazareth 
OFIg Ss 68),. now rebuilt at. Museum Carnavalet,. and the gre: a | 
entrance arches of the Oarrousel next the Quay.: Are these. 
last. arches higher than those of the garden of: Palace Royal 
(Fig.: 69) or of the doorway of Chapel Luxemburg?! I. do not, 


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96 | | 
know,: but, of the last. narriw ones and. those just, cited,: which” 
have grand. proportions? No. doubt is possible. 

Nothing will make this truth more strongly felt. than pian 
study of porches-or portals,: like those of the principal fan | 
cade of Amiens (Fig. 70).: However grand it. is materially,: if” 
the principal portal of Amiens were only a simple opening in | 
the wall,: it, would appear small; it, would again seem so were © 
it, not enclosed by a single arch. But you. know the arrange 
ment, of these portals with their successive archivolts projecs 
ting beyond each other,.: thus forming a large number of concen= 
tric arches.: Hach arch adds only one width of archivolt in 
height but two in width; thus without the slight, difference 
resulting from the pointed form,: the widths increase in rela= 
tion to the heights in the ratio of two to one.; And then 
note how much the proportion adds to the grandeur of appearam 
by an illusion desired by the artist,: your eye first oerceives 
the widest, arch,: which alone determines for you the PRP T 
tion of the portal.: 

Finally of extreme width is the bridge,: the srandaue exe | 
pression of the arch.: + nea 
May it, be said that these principles have no exceptions? 
No,: for. there may always be in each composition an idea,: a 
feeling to express in a special fashion,.: Thus the Gate Sai 
Denis (Fig.; 71). and the Arch de 1'. Etoile (Fig.; 72) have eleuw 
vated proportions in spite of the considerable widths of th 
arches,. especially of the latter.: But, who does nobrseciin 
even in that. proportion,. the enclosure of God or the. idol,: th 
arch made for a man and not. for a crowd? An entirely moral 
proportion,: for I conceive that if in future after a vietory,: 
our democracy has to erect, arches of triumph,: the proport 
of their; arches will no longer: be that, enclosing a man. b 

Wide enough to encloses ranked regiments,: and nithout, Ae 
its chara! ; , 
Also there are Often very: high proportions,: beam aru 
lighting churches,: like the great. Slass windows,: that in 4 
transepts have almost, the heisht of the aisles themselves,: 
Still an entirely moral proportion,: the result, of the > specia 
proportions of the monument, itself.: | ; 

But, when the arch is only a wifdsen a the na pian previousls 

mentioned for rectangular windows still control its propane 


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| 97 a 
proportions; Therefore ry shall. not, return to this.: 
fhe arch only lends itself to wider: windows,: that are no 
longer. the single window closed by two leaves, These are 
then very great, windows,: as. were those of the halls of the 2 
Baths,: like those of churches,:. of the waiting hall in the Pale 
ace of Justice and of railway stations. Properly speaking, : 
these are no longer windows but are great glazed arches,: that 
naturally escape from the proportions of the window,: ein. | 
so-called.: . a 
In brief, the proportions of arches vary infinitely,: and 
this must, be so,: since the arch was: created to permit, and ren 
alize all possible varieties of dimensions and proportions of 
openings, The architect, may here display all the flexibility ~ 
of his tafent,. for he is the undisputed master of the mateti=” 
al fashioned at his pleasure.: Thus you see that these stud-q r | 
ies always recall the feelins of your freedonm.: | ‘a 
Is it necessary to add that one using it, badly is the mors | 
responsible?: a | 
But in the same edifice you will not, have merely lintels or 
arches,: but will frequently employ bota.: ; 
If you, recur to the origin and the purpose of forms,: you 
will recognize the evidence of the principle,: that in the: | 
same. composition the arch is the form of the oe 
while the smaller ones are rectangular.: One cannot conceiv 
a rectangular carriage doorway in a house,: whose ordinary 1 in 
dows are. arched. It. is true that, the composition of arcade 
porticos with ensased columns and entablatures appears: to con= 
tradict this principle; but looking more closely,: and this 7 
motive is not disagreeable when the arrangement, is merely a 
decoration and not an opening,: but becomes so when the column 
is free,. and thus forms an actual portiso with lintels before) 
an arcade.: a) Sah | 
Yet I recognize that beautiful monuments disobey thas prin 
ciple,: natably the Palaces of Place de la Boncorde.: These 
are indeed motives derived from the location, from the de 
of the artist to treat. the ground story as a simple. ‘sube | 
structure,: for emphasized contrast., 1 prefer again to tell y 
that license is permitted to great. artists, and that it woul 
be rash to’ question a masterpiece,.: That no rule is” without — 
exceptions? True, but I add that the exception does not. pres 
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ae nes the Sere etme! ese various ele 
you. not see what controls them? Will this be cap: 
eeived wish,: an unexplained tradition? No, it is. 
and simply, beauty by truth. — Aes dhe vo 

Kae: ae: we then understand by truth? 


Cain eae 3 
The laws: of Sh evMe RRA D are the primary laws” 
tempted to evade them in a spirit of revolt.: +i 


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99 
CHAPTER VI. . PROPORTIONS IN HALLS, ; 
SUMMARY,.: ee Material and moral needs.: -— Proportion and 
character; churches.: = Proportions necessary for certain 
halls,: -« Halls rising from the ground.: -- Variation of propo 
tions according to effective dimensions; hygienic requirement, 
introduction of external light.: -- Proportions controlled 
by the nature of the construction.) Proportions of halls,: 
vaulted or with ceilings,. etcs: a 


The desired demonstration has been made,: the conclusions 
deduced from those considerations,: which were only examples ~ 
for me.: Have I exhausted the subject of proportions? No ine — 
deed,: for. it, comprises all, is the study of ell architecture,: 
and this study cannot be condensed in a few lectures. Yet 
there remains for me to say a few words on propor hese the 
elements of composition, te ‘at 

Perhaps you do not, catch this distinction, and I will exe 
plain myself.: . $3 BUR “a 

In every composition,: you will employ colonnades or windows. 
doorways, arches, vaults,: ceilings,: cornices,: ete, All these 
have their. proportions,. already mentioned.; But. you also have 
halls of various kinds, vestibules,: stairways,: ete. All these 
have their proportions,: which may be erbitrary,: and which yl 
proceed from both reason and artistic sense. The variety is 
infinite but. does not depend entirely on youe: pe cat 

In most cases,‘ our compositions comprise several stories; — 
thus in the same story all halls have a common hebght, an 
their widths,+-which determine the proportion rather 
depths,:--vary infinitely., The difference is enormous 
a salon or. a dining room and. a corridor,: and there 3 
sensible ici mbar eanacte lsd ant the salon and ‘a ches 


plan and the hanuns. of: an le deh an ay ee 
you must accept, fice’ of which your tatem iyo a 


t esecah of xtontos are \ceeceee hor eG roons anal inver 
the plan of one of our citizens apartments would be r 
with the stories of the Louvre; the arrangement, must be . 
proportion to the edifice.: 


if eS ada ey ae 
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100: 
But, in halls extending from the gubawae you are masters of 
proportion,: at, least. more nearly masters.: re 
There you have two objects, the material and the moral 
needs,: very often in accordance. Material needs explain then= 
selves; moral needs are imposed with less precision,: but no | 
less forcibly. Why do our churches have such elevated propor= — 
tions,: if not to respond to a moral need?’ It is certain that. 
with the same perimeter, Length and width, if you have to pro: 
ject here a chapel and there a refectory,: you will certainly p | 
make the chapel highest, and still the refectory materially re 
quires the greatest volume of air.; But. this height, given to 
the chapel is imperatively required by the idea of divine maji 
esty;: it, will be the same each time that. you wish to enphasia 
& moral more than a material purpose.; I. do not, anon on these | 
incontestable verities,: | i 
There are other motives for the study of oroportialeea spec 
ial or general motives.; In structures forsutdaaey a ae 
academies,: asylums and hospitals,: barracks,: ete.,: you will ; 
have to obey precise rules fron the standpoint, of hygiene; 
there the programme itself will dictate the proportions in | 
some sort. These I call special “mofives;: but cannot enter 
into details, and I pass to seneral motives,: sit el 
We may admit, thet. every hall extending from the ground is 
a great hall,i and consequently we here treat of the ‘propor= 
tions of great halls.: : 
These halls will always have a suffigient height, « for one 
cannot assume for them the heisht of a simple roote; But the — 
proportion of this height. to the width cannot be consented ‘ 


| 
| 
| 
{ 
\ 


and the other 65,6 ft. wide.. If the first be 16,4 ft. hi 
this square proportion is not excessive, But, would you, 1 a 
-the other 65,6 ft. high? Never,: for you should conform to the: 
essential principle, that the wider the hall, ‘the — Thi 
‘proportion is its heigsht,: | j 5 a 

But. other factors interfere in the study of this propor 
hygienic reasons already mentioned; if a hall -is intended 
receive a numerous assemblage for long sessions,: you should 
make it sufficientky high that the volume of air suffices f 
respiration; then for reasons of lighting, the Light. shothal 
penetrate everywhere as much as possible; thus equal width 


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4 Pe ieas see A@elats Shite eft evods ymokaiw yd doddyil 
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101 
and with windows on only one side reguires these windows to © 
be higher,: and conversely a higher proportion than with light, 
ing on both sides; -- also frequently the lighting can be ase 
sured only above lower adjacent, buildings; such is the case 
with the naves of churches, and it is again a reason Ser 
their elevation,: “ae 

Finally,: here again will you find the direct, results: Ou con 
struction.; Your hall vaulted in stone cannot, have an undefing : 
width, and if great, width is hecessary for it, (you are com— 
pelled.to divide it; such is the waiting hall of the Palace | 
of Justice (Fis.: 73),. whose vauly is indeed of bricks,: but. 
with stone transverse arches supporting the weight; vaults of 
small matrrials permit, greeter widths,: as may be seen in the 
halls of the Baths, et S.; Sophia and at S,; Peter.) A cedling — 
or. visible wooden framework admits of sreater widths than 
vaulis,: consequently with lower or wider proporti oases aeeeae 
is synonpmous.: ie 

Thus observe at the same scale fhe transverse sein ane of 
the Cathedral of Rheims (Fig.; 74) and that, of the basilicas q 
with ceilings,: such as of S.; Paul wet-Walls (Fis.; 75),: Sa: © 
Maria Magsiore,. Monreale,. etc.; The religious idea is in both 
cases the same idea,: even of the programme; henee identity of 
purposes: The compositions are nearly the same,: each with nave 
lighted by windows above the side aisles.; But, the construct-_ 
ion entirely differs,. on one hand being the vault with its 
thrusts,( its mechanical effects on the walls and itself; on 
the other being the ceiling where the framework exerts on th 
walls a purely vertical action,: hence proportions are. shone 
lutely different,. with the result, of a different, sopearance 
and @ different. art. | ee Os ia 


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aan HOME IaMOa ag enue 
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a al cbnaaya mV eeeem ane Lg ids cody 


Bs. papas Sy aek pages: dae 


102 
CHAPTER VII.; COROLLARIES OF THE STUDY OF PROPORTION: 
SUMMARY, -— Study of plans,: sections and elevations is 
merely the same study.’ == Their reciprocal depeateneaun sina 
method of study.. Sted 
Study of proportions requires 2a delicate sense only created 
by the study of design.: -- Identity of design and study of | 
proportions.: =» Necessity of drawing and sketchese; . 
Criticism of errors to be condemned.: «— Abuse of enormity,: 7 
and true grandeur inearchitecture. -— Negligence in drawing... 


I have shown you the admired proportions,: that. have made 
edifices celebrated and classical, and havins a character com 
mon to all their variations,: they are true.; This truth is 
the beauty itself of architecture,: and is ‘hte 

That is the entire theory of proportions.: | 

Permit me only to deduce from it some corollariese; Phe 
first is that, the study of your projects in plans,: sections 
and elevations is but, one and the same study.: To represent, an 
architectural entirety requires several drawings, each the : 
reciprocal complement of the others,: and not successive phase 
es of the study. G nerally,: you study your plans too much 
without, attention to the others,: then you study your facades 
separately, and sometimes =— iaduninstate: ae your sections. A 
bad methods: eri eA _ 

In most, cases indeed, the study of your plan must precede 
somewhat; but it soon becomes necessary for sections end fan 
cades to control,: and to correct it, if necessary.; Note tha 
I mention "sections" before "facades",: because it is the 10g- 
ical orders: 

I have shown you how all these are connected in the study 
of proportions,: notably how the oroportions of a facade are 
Soverned by those of the interiors.: In any programme, : you. 
decide provisionally on the srrangement,: which is the plan. 
Then you should now fix the heights of the stories, theo id 
heights of windows in relation to these stories,. with the vie 
of the best. possible lightins,.the outlines of the roofs,: ete 
Then this plan,: merely a horizontal section and the section © 
in a vertical plane, has.ea facade as resultant,.: a 

Not. necessarily a facade,: for: on the contrary it is proban 
ble, that, this first, attempt. at, a facade will require numerow 


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| 104 
corrections. Then you will require the plan and section to 
permit you to modify your facade,: there will be mutual conces= 
sions or insurmountable resistances; finally after long con~ 
sideration harmony results,. and the study of the entirety is” 
completed: | Shahar. | 

This is the reasonable study,: not, deceptive, and I add,: the) 
necessary study,: without, which there are only errors and ill-— 
usions.; Only thus will you become accustomed to good sense: © 
and reason, you will not produce facades like those too fre= 
quently seen in your projects,: where between the windows of — 
two successive stories are 20 or 26 ft. in height, of stone 
and perhaps more,: or indications of a mezzanine where @ sec § 
tion does not. permit the heisht of a story.: 3 7 3 

My second corollery is this:+- study drawing as much as pose 
sible.: Drawing is the basis of the arts; without it are no 
artists. Do not think thet I recommend drawing from the spec= 
ial point of view of your rendered drawings; I say more,that — 
you never can study architecture unless you are good drafts= 
men. Note the failure of those who are wise and intelligent 
but lack this primary basis of artistic studies, and who 
thought to be able to study architecture with thw sole aid of 
science and reason. The sterility of their efforts has ernuel~— 
ly punished them for that, lack in education.: AS a 
““ Proportion plays a vast, part, in architectural design,: the 
sense of proportion is the chief artistic sense, and nothing § 
develops it. like the practice ef drawing. ith us proportion. 
are infinite and delicate, and are still more so in natures & 
How do you recognize a friend among all the men you sooth Oe 
if you were to see: millions of persons pass? A matter of abe: 
portions alone,: for unless your friend be a monster or a eri 
ple, his composition does not. vary.: But. proportion is 50 aon 
riable and infinite,: that, among pillions of heads are no two 
exactly alike,.; Then what is drawing? It is to perceive and 
then express: these specific proportions,: that distinguish ani | 


identify the model. The best draftsman is most. sensitive to 
ie ie ‘ha 


proportions,: | 
This sensibility being once acquired is another sense en= E | 
iching you,: applicable to architecture as to painting» and 4 
sculpture. That is why painters and sculptors could be ee 
ite architects,: and why there has been placed at, your disposal 


r a ' if, 
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ear Ocha é 


me Em mel guklebudy sot eases wae 
deed Anta Ws Re esivbe. i jabat Ya pee ° it; 


“yao nws teyago avoloone | nasi ae end A 


Bes 7 

hal eae <> 4000 ‘eds +t6.5 24 Pos t as i FIGS Lara wast P ' a Se 

cad: gise!l od ea0le Saltaaigss, cit fs Wtaneaoe a yi sail t 
oF if fa ta ite NOD 73 ii + SiS a ae + ee bs nt} 2a | ag re 22 ir oe iy tt eye ef re] 4 rns a 

Teed ty " 


ext : . 
on bute ines 40 Setveeem een oad poy etiven4 yon OD 


: ~E ORD Powe BBM Oi S 

dec od vem Sdtdotets to tidad ond teh dieet | y 

Mr ae ‘9 GORE eiaih age, ais 8 ¥ StORGCRAE IT ’ i 

ni a ee u ‘ 
gO%.0f ¥ ei co éaide ois gad Descoibal.voeexts evad ft 


ag pads $OGHSOMOCY AOL elts WOT. as ea Sob To 2) Ve Age ii 
Pe Te ‘ * iy i eee ae Pt ie ea dere ' ie hd 4 arte San” pS kos 
ve ai t sam PIeV i CH - t af Rees nen kG vi i py Ped Ske Seek oe 
pamomeen dead ifs asooat t00,.,hortdod elt ed haw, eatea 
Zi tia tj CNN s a hed ab he a ee ‘ “Bare ey 

rt ‘hee hie +i aed Mabie SB MOF TO BO Lee eaegod OMe, Osehe 


ae F _ Mee eee diy Renta San anes emerge" mu) lee a8 
oe Pe RH wh Oo OO a DOE AD ARS 


pives, paloe ered bac inod, Vine Med. | vnoy eroes. [Tiw 
Re, sig pied senodeie te sek doe i lea. Paes & OFS 


«* « 
ie ha i Beli t % hie eb Sev ¥ y Odds 5 ps ry: Caw) ead re! 
Set ‘de ce Ya a hereto ae ie, ye Be eek 7 
aie add. ne “beths gi teilstagood voy seivis itese ¢ 
Aygo . ae" , F nd, 


. | RNS REOTROT EEO to 99 . 
gf, Kol hosdsoxge i Retdvomoe eye ALoodg? 
pa aaalalaiiiae osak noida (gins 0a, : ee, 
Gatien, wis 6 Sond d dite gd gd ned. dad ving sos od J Be 
fr, "Db A ae 


gia, xd wey oF tine fou! hh GRA sade las, Bas PPTs 
\gstener: pee ee forsepa vad by.608 3. Lovtieo) oe as 


Poets cn euusea tiers ris dagone Bois) BE we Ng 


preties POY. Balaeit to: Peres eect bitot rte °° 
pen eankiue gona age 1g wed Gin 


194 
the most extended means for studyins drawings and modeling. 
Profit by them,: I advise as an architect,: who did not. find & 
at the Ecole these precious opportunities,: since trequeusa® \ 
resretted.: 4 

Also draw architecture,: not. after the book or the drawing. 
That is necessary at. the beginning alone to learn to outline 
and to pass washes,: but: from nature and the completed monument 
I. do not require you to make measured or rendered drawings,: 
to make sketches,: | 

iofear that the habit. of sketching may be lost;.as FOR, Bom 
come photograpKers,: you are less draftsmen.: | 

I have already indicated that, the sketch is the most, rapid 
means of progress in your art, for you cannot, sketch anything” 

ithout having carefully examined it, analyzed it in every s 7 
sense and to the bottom, nor render all that wothout the know] 
edge and possession of your subject.: Not. only must, you seize _ 
its composition,: but, must; fix relations without, any other aid 
than the attentive study of proportions,.: baad 

Nothing is more charming and attractive than the ae dtl 
but the habit is not. improvised.: On the contrary,: many must, 
have been made before attaining certainty,: and practiges alone 
will serve you. I. can only confirm here some advice on the | 
method and selection of sketches already given in Book I relae 
tins to preparatory studies... 

I. again advise you to parallel studies in the atelier and 7 
before the reality, with the drawing board and sketchbook. 

This method is fertile. and you will be astonished by the | 
rate of your progress. | ’ | | 

Schools are sometimes reproached for leaving stinbenee with 
out initiation into practice. Unjustly,. for a sehool can & 
teach only what can be tausht within walis by the aid of books 
and models.; But it, belongs to you by initiative and will to. # 
control that instruction by the careful study of reality.: Pare 
is is rich enough in architecture to sive the highest in- 
struction. Visit, other cities as you can,: pencil in hand; . 
will teach you proportions better than I can.: =i a 

I know the charm found at its school and ateliers,: -- corm 
tainly I desire you to feel this,: -— but that is not all, ah 
cause of the custom of all days alike in passive labor; work=_ 
ers even devote themselves precisely and docilely to the give 
en task and lecture,without, adding the personal work of | 


wee 


v a 


Sorte Yo waone i tte. Sepdagt lind: ign thor 
NSN eed Se eer) ah Lt: od #64 WORD | 
. don!’ at ered BNP AA foae pebhige:: me SeLe6a a fre 

Y sataasco ony ¢ cele eis! .encis ‘Loxene® Yo \énbtats 
eet gset ite ait; bersethbs’ sion gree ia ety 43! eins 
pibas’ Priytt adg evsd fi .eebhite e663) to 80bay ev iioss Sox ; 
“bibow taddo, yebod qisseeosm aluhis wok oe EHD Ee Ten Oo) Oe 
gi neo loss pw0ood (ike (1088 ‘eisoy YineEs wee loos Koed | 


; : > ie © \WKittlGOr 8 felt { DN a ; stn y } 
ogetg to. meteqsdheo ae La® giev.e vad Boy Qnake "ist ee 

at SAS M07 dihertinoss:, asided Sad ytev bas eae lgdttond to he 

mR (befes ols eveni#ol .notiertal sas lerko: To ‘Totded: £: to a 
oo hbaenbia gedst ooive? fed egéoke te vaddet io \tashnas® / 0 
bestudorsd: Sncbalba Zatve of Rnidd voy jovteresns ed?) ms 

m | 


hisdis BOF bas. neteromth Boyenitivra (aes hae eaook ot 

ee a eee tls a | SB HORGEo ene 
Sse? 688: netene 3 bocdee ooF ta vitelh eee foy end? re ha 
vet Odd eh) iotae eovons eerxdd to bosodmta.:  aegas hot | 
oxsued & a stkos als agen bidce wo¥,ageb end. to 
£0 fa, Sve Keaicag: Bia Ligh Vato ene. gad 1 


ats, Vs 


eaend (low vocs voy baa ,paoa vue ile gon wy 


Me Pia 
ho ae 
i ar 
y ae i: Se : ergy At 
ip . <p : , y; 4 ees yh 
Py 5 aM Oe es j ut. - S a eB ne Te fo fig uy gee ave 
ay Hy kiiaog of 8a seas POO tian Fas FUP vO : 
t ok: 
; a 


ose Gos <j MDs a.dR9 Basak ar tio dh eigese \ aa 


eS Ee ae ay A! + . fe ‘ 
ob tee .vitan fre vet 


xG0. Vestttarter te. Maine ehy yiate’ rece Cpe Na 
ue isin fae ches) agi at eigate vier oak. 


Sv cleiedis diedeund or cai aan 
ebileps od Tytlsone fond te seed Aapsey he 
,sheilors) cond 3, qiao Aviv Cat. Hee? mew (aN 
10 Seoetihlh tet ‘a sol Bet: Anes 
And bis 


ve oe 


“105, 
logical intelligence; all idleness of mind and. lia ok of wilde; 
Know how to will.; : 

But a course in gods igs tech hats Vie here aii Ee 
truths of the. i websen: hour,: addressed. ‘to avi inehthen ge the 
collective state of the studies.: I have the. right, and duty 
to say today to you things necessary today,: thet. would have — 
been useless twenty years age, Will becone useless in twenty 
years, and I hope sooner,: } . 

Many among you have a very false conception of proportion,« 
or thoughtless and very bad habits acquired from the fashion 
of a school, of careless imitation.; Fou have the malady of = 
Srandeur,: or rather of excess,believing that grandeur is et 
the excessive,: you think to crush adjacent structures by thi. 
gross and easy artifice of dimension,: and you attain chal wall 
notonous,: FO a 

Thus you see daily at the School facades 328 Ete or more. 
in length,: composed of three arches,: which is the fashion 
of the day. You would wake the court of the Louvre with five. © 
bays,. the City Hall would perhaps have seven or nine windows,’ 
Not all but, some,: and you know well that I do not, exaggerate. 
You have heights of stopies near which a story of the Louvre 
or of Versailles would be only a mezzamine.: You have the nil 
worship of enornmity.: ‘lea 

Do you then believe,: that the composition of sreat ‘thinpal 
adapts itself to these extravasant proportions? That, mould be 
2 profound error.’ we a 

Grandeur of appearance in composition is obtained by. ‘simpli 
ity and unity. But it is also obtained by the number of ele 
ments, which prefers a lons facade with more bays” to a ‘chore 
er one.) Take the facade of Versailles next the park, “oh tohidl 
is very simple in composition and very érand in appearance 
do you believe that the great projection at the niddl oy itil 
composed of a few bays,: would produce the same beter 5 of 2.1 
eur due to the numerous motives=- which are further | 
Sreat,: but: without. enormity?! Conceive the old Palace dt 
say (Fis.76) with only three arches,: as’ certain persons 
mong you would not fail to make it. Or again conceive th | 
interior of Notre Dame or of 8,; Eustache with re: ‘three! bam 
for their naves,~ . Pas ' 


oy eDoet | pated foluw ao) etneagans ete Spenett" 
tee nutaectpans Od bealsoeyg ness acd: owe sw9Y 
one tontoa s ayeris: ei eisdd) vedd |.yee Yen One VS" 
fin WphOR ane boat) eveced0 |.aonmbapes: Soi bing (ed bn 
enaT at eK O%) od awead Ilex ae lgqnsxs edko. iiiy, lo foe cada 
od ett ils Yo Qdige ho vad? eifd 10. Weak edt) yee%es 
sins xd peete nese! nodu hue}. ar eepn oth seaty 


Be ci. syaale: SE gud :oi of gaibees encin eid 


peiglie edd evrced0 1.d2 €80 lonsce » aad dope edd ddd’) 
ov: +98 e68 ao abitelin’ edd Aoi hain eda to, eyodoo tide, 


saad anda Bbomr1ené Bis sidiw LeauogesD. wb eos td 
Breasted: pebised “.sexs AOSwded -otom £O (4G T Bebe) Fo 

edd el figttipecd moid Ft ei ~ldestdatakdw: baa 
f at mada t. Oi dees ot dead tf ‘vi. 10 gntdd bassg.e 

iyo. \eavinod efi Yo i109 ‘gid to soltinougod elds 

a ARLES l Ht tyoGyeci bes os: 6 tssealoo eat 

. eta cane whan pees? Aca i pe oe eae 


eos ‘iia. Yous aed i Aindnasidiices yous 
£% 30 doa bib emo, ¢aiy evothow'red oa: 576" 


sdeds disdves et af Jind Cees dads bond 
BM. ae , wm BI vi, 19 99.9./<42 To aAvebests a0 gh hae 
fgngfios a lovivee’ buotkiles nadw- eoa9 sree), 78 
pa \  etad Lowy. ‘eit, digensd BROBLE basewmas. Vs 
TO05 Sia Vice d PhO. Rs Avoa ae . ewiewened Sue o a |. 
pousde avos even I erein wm Big oaldagsesou. Lo afiy 
Deoitetosteidi add ~~ ttedianos eaozied ¢idews ‘nad 
Bion. esa datinai ot 2 gases wittadaat voy NOCH BS 
gib taxi tas: 38 eabroaine ‘phe sofdetiubs, to 419 


aa aadtaneckh ddd butaletis:moxy? bet ak eifqae 


. eae Deane roros. you al Yeebnats io jon tye, eng 
aie hebas sy edi.%o yaens eid et doide eromnane 
Nae yak $y gin aide Late age dans wah vB, rr: 


fifors ap 30. agisqeraoo homemonLit etal; 
Tp eveited) ike, Hoy: Tol aged doldy, ot 
uf be ‘the, he idee ft Boadieg Le TOOY 
rat nee ever 1 sciete iil 


} 
. AS ws eh ani 


ai, is a Bea, aa Re 


1 : ; Sj ‘ ; Y i) , 
P 7 ar we i MW * A ~ ¥r 4 
ei at ee } é wu uy ae ae ‘ he aoe "s io pan? Se Be baike 
7 qi, a= § n = tak Sra Y hoe AJ ee Ac? yaa 
y i 


eo Vitek fegetesg: kalntwit »eabeais 


fides: nS Lahde actos ak i: ‘a aa 


106 
There are monuments on which this oxagdétavsdipnyhanhebeale it 
your. own,: has been practised to some extent.; In a general 
way one may say,. that there is always a coincidence of enore 
mity and of decadence. Observe Grecian,: Roman and mediaeval 
art.: But 1. will cite examples well known to you.: Thus at. 
Peris,: the Arch of the Star,: in soite of all its beauty other 
wise; its mass is grand when seen afar,: by contrast, to all> 
the views leading to it; but. it, always astonishes me to recal 
that the awech has a span of 52.9 ft.) Observe the enormous are 
chitecture of the wing of the Tuileries on Rue de Rivoli and 
Place du Carrousel with its enormous pilasters and its bays 
of 32,8 ft.: or more: between axes.) Besides being inconvenient 
and. uninhabitable,: is it then beautiful? Is the proportion 
a grand thing,: or is it, best, to seek it, rather in the nae | 
able composition of the court, of the Lonvre?: | 
The colossal also had its hour in Italian art,; 5 ,:Biwiehen off 
Rome -- which I. admire,: believe this as much as may be == om 
S.. John Lateran presents this character.: When 1 commenced | 
study architecture, I heard that the proportions of Sa Peter 
were so harmonious,that one did not, at first perceive iba.) J 
Srendeur., Singular praise! Happily S.: Peter did not: catirely 
merit, that, zeal; but, it, is certain that to judge correct, 
of the grandeur of S.: Peter,. it, is necessary to nana 
at, least, once,: when relisious festivals collect, pene 
ty thousand persons beneath its vaulis.; oe ee Oa 
On the contrary,: as soon as one passes the dootwaee of Sef 
phia of Constantinople -— where I have seen scarcely more i 
than twenty persons together -— the character of grandeur sei 
es upon you instantly; perhaps no artist, hes not. ubveneers 
ery of admiration afid surprise at this first slam 
Sophia is far from attaining the dimensions of §&.: e 
the effect of Srandeur is not compromised by the use ‘a 
enormous,: which is the enemy of the Srand.: | 
I may add that. you saa this: Yoel You zaue the cnoraons 


years; elec it will require a lien time still to ope 
it.: Since I have changed the instruction,: ny hatred w rh 


Oe ae: Oeteern 20 sta wi ye oe palouen 96 
OneAsoas. coy oF vokdnR Kiss Jays I 
iB Leneaes ai’ eved got emoidsoootd te 
‘adoy gad 329707 od batuseqge iklaaclerso pet 
Obeid Pass g) 0. atneometsent haliso @14 | sensu 

@ nor Benkl Yo @eonsetses add yd yitetap ttre, ¥@ 
Mom gisbiw bak OEM ead enti e& VE abkercoose 
isk B fa dotdw pamuloo 2s to soldvogerg ads etslo 
venti, “poe ted dad. her kai brooos” ytebisle 46 WWeee xeedce 
. ae @ ton et) daddy bad Atk ekltedvo ‘+o ghtent apsed ed 
we 1 don Rie hed ¢{istoedes ef dud. .2initward» Serebnet 10% 


ye " es see) dt oveiled ot . abindae oot sev leargoy) mod 


shaded he bei ai hasanties ond eames eB EOE. 
env: yava Tleaym, ctsed.goonen 1) weds ‘eee wor 
doe ye2. ifin Stow 2 ints Fags eqed. i ssnatitogeya 
ao bwoisieoqsoe gts ai ‘il: sgasv yuev eh +i 
vatled. Pnatsiogorg- waged 4s) (bakies) iat 


; geaokiatonoerd. | 


ies ete btae e800 26 notteats visa br 


thea C paatniiitanastenanmetaa” 


vf “b f s i ae ‘ Ms 
| Sa 107 : a f i Y 
be aubene to it. in ees courses; bray ribs 


ing carelessly,: appearing to forget that your drawing in 


tom yourselves too readily to believe it. ah hae niente 


proportions.:; I hope that this word will say much to 


I must again mention to you another: criticism on. h 
of: proportion.: You have in general acquired the habit, 


ments are ition instruments of ebinbemassh oh “PO as be 
Giate pas proportion of a vehi Ghaal weeen ae a sual lusaneen 
appear peer gs. or span ike ARLE to whether! thoolameray 
your eine ivneiween but is cup este ts eau since oi rose 
proportions. * 

It is a sense too delicate to resist. beatal tenth 

You see that I. cannot, tear myself away from this ‘sub je 
it. is very vast.) If in art, composition és thought, 


is feeling; a happy proportion I believe to be the: mo 
id satisfaction of the artist.) ; nde 


2 Wh he ienole’ dm: ad wee aha hates 
ait a Peenvennenies S808) te. Morte sitet it~ 
gat RS a | “WWitlidese to Lortnos 
op sathsontiaere: 29. pen toe Bias) biel ear ae alt | 
ri - a 
bar, 8, vieres at bkes Pere. ono tutehad, ai gant 
eo tootonre adi dees Teverod 
ea7uG ne pwole need ged noitouborgnl aide, a) 
, ident gfe yd-hoiliotc eved voy, sedw Rathyve 
“eget horssocoig: has aobtisactioe - foodoe /ekad at 
panes rtae s9ey ¢o Hetdigusg: ef dadw gov To. ee 
Baw feoge 94. evad woo ti: stwex eital wie bus 9oued 
Eubk cat Soin eanvan eas) Ro nokirog 10tbu atid ea 
fie haa! poets wengeste OU 38 neon le wah abn 


pie se ay) beliase i. 
ise eit. ai aidt - Ashotionsse” oo (Das wets 
id Bdbbu de edt al sdoadidacte be oubs eda 
“i seT9 edn adolvevadados to Spake: has angen 
eaadetes ts too dae, jedsiate «vote, seodd, 1? 
a pedkdhda te qroad? sav ne eewod edt leon? 

" pies dou Teaidaosdanne AL 6atgoo edd to een ok 
ed flvow th ndigooor ‘o® wokiqk of -notingéat of o¥ed 
OKT: unted, ee Aexrs0o gat ‘sit ewleonos gd aver 


a 


kr fee Dibsasarohne ylasefo ad ot hesaiee 2: adaet 
ne yageaas dreieitib edt isl soisowry. 
nde welanpe aang nen et ioe tito gs 


Beech ©: vice & Conte NY ae Sen es. ask Ba. 
e nee, ipiaine 3 Noa odd, ay af oath gon. edo a4A,; 

baouekoe) Kediiet 16. SAbTTO donned sone. 

Wf 20 Ragiscavo'edd'ay eoviotsuy ati ore 


: ee On genene edd aA 


Siudostidor. to) encftearege évikesnoue 


ae Yo) ‘tetany tosses on jnolisopysemt ase, 
» aps. ae exe eoed Sto ao gonatie ao flout 


4 103 ‘SG Si em 

~ CHAPTER VIII.: ART AND SCIENCE OF CONSTRUCTION,. © 
SUMMARY,: = Structmuresoaresthet objeetcof atchitectar 
construction is its means.=-~ Construction is an art. anda 9 
science.| --lnsufficiency in art alone and in science alone.; — 
evArtistic study of constructability; scientific methods for 
control of stability.: . Chae 
Actually the art, and science of architectures: 


gr 


What. has heretofore | been said is merely a long introduction, 
however vast its subject. “*y ied. Com 
In this introduction has been shown the purpose; after your 
studies,: when you have profited by the instruction freely siv 
in this School,: composition and proportion will be for each © 
one of you what is permitted by your Mee 
gence and artistic: sense.) I. now have to speak «and this w 
be the major portion of the course == of the means that, arch 
itecture places: et your command.) Apparently. a transposition mal 
yet it. is first. necessary to Ahow you your route,: ¥ 
What. then remains to ere bogetaor 


méeans and result. of. constenekibn ae aroma ait ‘taae ‘re 
for these are our alphabet and our arsenal. i 3 


have no Chetan Oba to follow Me: Monduit It. sean be 


Cae science on one alana ‘art, on the tho 
Here I need to be clearly understoodin using es 
truction in its different senses.: j 
Architecture has costyructuresis 2s kigok purposeyceo: 
as its means; ; . 
Art does not. suffice to give the oueteaeeee. aa 
ence cannot ecreate,: or rather science does not ereate,: 
lends its guarantee to the creations of art «5 ae 
At the School we do not construct,: but, all that, we make it 
constructable; an architectural conception otherwise dos 
exist.’ What, is then the peocedure of ‘the thought, of the 


ii 


stil aul hig i Mh if a A Ee 


ip ality v4 ie faeob: Miia ‘er om Co Fs ee 
Laie Wboda\ fauet ten timve goolet: To BdBoto 63 
los soneige Wee ov -boxt,% eh) Bebe Sot) te¥te ners 
Dysteon bas Bano lt Oras ae tliaw sai Se) eo! ‘Pade dis 
eh waudes ov not sa dlice ace oP iewme toe dad tediie 
q fin /eoustee’ senie Yacksasen0s e6.F ba Yhuia) offset 
_ aanehinsoend) Yo 22ers ne ho @dugburcat one 
VOX .elqmexs. ‘te 242s Poote toba wy xo S4O8" Bobo ean oF 
ased isd daoty. ode seitvenl: to Gomtad: end “thE 
obao. fedesouiow aft balded ostbhastxe died aahytew 
a tpi fekoegqe.to/ cebecs! .(8V.". R88) netted ob 
rom! 26. foes sacdd sowwdesou of Yossi¢obs sii los borsindo 
ae eendtr esrevenard Ah toi) whites 
| $etag hassrctiavds eedove geors Ilews vwenge 
J alilaw edd Sten (estado eid ws es totes. Leaolrtedga 
cm: tv gad ea cbibobets cave pote dawg Ho sidiheb to woat 
ae ays seiedg? 8) 20 so muted s 
cates: aqt motsanidaog sidd bevinonso® ent 
Re G wt gdNob on YO? Sabdae edt 
Gym doare da git toads oF Ris FO? Vieeae” 
eho oasis to enoidas . behest edt ede tro iao- 
pla eis ixe bus isatevni ens 
“i a vig | jotesbwenke 
Biss wavs ot we tegeeth fon asok ponaioe: ous 
ot ‘bas dei. BAhv Snoyed 609 eiqmegia, FL aeilw be 
a Bin gotdaste (35 eiyuedte odd ois avelitusT vod 
PAsunoo js aongtoa yiag bed ode snow t Lfesat ne Wear of 
92, | ale atddyce 6s mer oe sntge it & ean ees dae 
imebad vise is griddence died lho blood Bode lor 
.. ‘ybsorka, we idotg ett) tens, SUepal. ha vinnlsai a <6 
tne. etols wrk stab Legisenun ed¢ eniincde qt 
gut dice, peenee's ae “ek ,atvepels edd ence aoe 
i Ra Reb SERBS 


# ay0 a) ele ous, di edie bie: yeodaon. of 808 


is 
ia aes an 


oe 
ies 


AP 


Te as ee 4 


wo Has 


oF 


* i ' + Te ; 
we Pe ; Re PON 
;? 9 ’ i 2 ees 


DUTAE HOD, ose to nigeob aki’ ‘mtd tke ene 
tae 406, wee meet acess old bas hag 


. 109 ae 
itect?: To move within the domain of the constructable,: there 
to ereate or select combinations,: study their proportions;. 7 
then after its idea is fixed,: to ask science to verify the 
stability of its walls,: vaults,: floors and roofs; perhaps 
after that scientific consultation to return to a new art 
istic study of its conception,: since science. will have shown 
an imprudence or an excess of precautions.’ 3 . 

To make this better understood, take an example. You know © 
in the Palace of Justice the great, hall,: both vestibule and © 
waiting hall, extending behind the monumental facade of Rue 
de Harlay (Fis.: 77).: Because of speckal combinations,: it. 
occurred to the adchitect to consturct, there vaults of novel” 
design (Fis.; 78); transverse arches perpendicular to the face 
ade, other small cross arches then forming panels, with a 7 
spherical calotte at, the centre, next the walls beins a sure 
face of double curvaturs,: which might be either a portion of - 
& torus or of a sphere,: ed a 

Who conceived this combination for producins certain ef- 
fects? The artist,: for no doubt is possible. Then it was neem 
essary for him to study its stereotomy,: verify its stability, 
calculate the varied actions of these elements on each other, 
and on the internal and external walls.: This was the” pore 
science, 

In art, science does not greate; it is absurd aah ake 
ed: when it attempts to g0 beyond its part. and roe 
how fruitless are the attempts at creation emanating fron 
however intellikent,: who had only science at, command. They — 
could neither imagine nor create anything; prepared for 
rol, they could only take something already made, vary sp 
or distances, solve anew the problem already solved,: by me 
ly changing the numerical data.: Art alone can (Create,: can 
Combine the elements, i. e.,: compose,: combine the a ¥ 
1. @.,: design,: 

But. to compose and study by the aid of our ie 
remaining within this domain of the constructable; 
that if the architect has not the necessary science, t 
construction,: he will likewise become sterile;. compared 
the incomplete architect as only a scientist, is a ineco a 
plete architect, as merely an artiste: — i. 


& “i 
‘ od ‘ 


Many are unwilling to accept this Sut i, . which is | stronger 


eta eee, Ue ree ai 3 » 
Se AROY 3; 
wee + ‘ - 
a a 3 ww ve td wh ad 
¥ 


ib ive a 
a> 


dou “Je Titeba Of 


. DEE tg even mene Pr WR ie hh Tat 

| than all opposition; you, must, take your stand and Ke . 

iz resolutely; you will be architects only if you are artists 

a and scientists.: Take iti omeleare He; . 1 PERRe 

I have just. stated construction to be an art end a se! 

and the end of the explanation spoke of the art and science 

of architecture; one does not. go without, the other.) © + Shp 

But, the instruction is fortunately divided among’ several a 

courses.; 1 do not have to. teach you sciance,: but, do have to 

Show gou the means at command,: their variety and the condin | 

tions of their use,: adhering to the. constructable as an a 
indispensable in the art. I propose to place before you the 

inventory of your venerable patrimony in the lectures: to. i 

Lowe: wat 

fo begin,: I. shall next, speak of walls.) perhinth you will : 

ask how much can be said on that, subject;. you think cate 

wall is: merely a wall; you will see,: and I only fear being — 

unable to. comdense in a single lecture all,: be qt heve : 

say on that subject.: | 


‘bo wf 


wii =i Ai 30 


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ae 
BOOK III,: ELEMENTS OF ARCHITHECTURE,: 
I,. WALLS AND ISOLATED OPENINGS,: | > tg) 
Walls., -— Isolated walls.: -- Assembled walls.; -— Combined 
walls. -- gtudy and thickness of walls. -~ Character and dees 
oration of walls.: +» Openings in walls,.} += Application te | | 
doorways, windows,: tec.:-« Decoration of doorways and windows 


CHAPTER I.; WALLS.: — : ; 
SUMMARY, -- Importance and variety of the study of walls; 

-« Isolated walls,; «= Battering construction.: -- Plinths,i r ; 
cesses,‘ footings. == Bond and solidity. <= Jointing. = Ane 
tigue jointing with stones set. dry.: -- Covering of the wall;. 
cornices: and their reasons.for: existence.| | 


As 
Today I must speak to you of walls.: Perhaps some among you 
may regard the. wall as the subject. of a chapter on constnuct- 
ion,: and not that of an artistic lecture. This would be @ © 
profound error.: Doubtless in the wall as everywhere,: construe 
tion and art, are intimately connected; but, from the point, of 
‘View of appearance and character,: nothing more than the wall 
lends: itself to a profoundly artistic study. Observe the 
study of the lateral walls of the Pantheon in Paris (Fig,: 
W4er. of the Arch of the Star; those of the great. reservoir: 
at Versailleé, of the terraces at. Meudon, and you will con- — 
vince yourselves that paintings and: sculpture are at 
ly arts,: that. derive from the study of the nude their most | 
erful effects.; Without, restricting ourselves even to these 
nude walls,.is there not, again a study of the wall on the e 
ries of the Louvre,: on the Sround story of our School of Fin 
Arts,: and of Mansion Pourtales in Rue Tronechet? And if we 
leave Paris, we then find the justly admired walls of Grecia 
and Etruscan antiquity, the great supporting walls of the Ca) 
itol of the Tabularium (Fig.: 80); the great and iapestng wale 
of the theatre of Orange and the elegant walls of Pompeii; _ 
the middle ages the walls of Carcassonne (Fig.: 81),. of Gu res 
ande,: of Moret,: ete.y later the grand terraces of Blois: an a 
of Amboise.: So many walls were conceived and studied. be at v 
ists with the will. to produce a work of art.: a 
On the other hand,: the wall is the primary element in ev 
sat 4 og archi bdo hires is also the woe Te i's: a 


cere ik hla ef cia ae aie 
il Wee es es a iy Pe een) wklow oe 
ASIONSD ‘s nf tuners yiev s48 whtan 46 ehokioand 
Wi ogres ond osat bebtwth ed text? yan 
ae Sbaeiiew bésoornoo bag alisw batsloel 
i nee te: disw dt ag wove ~~ Digwoboisloet eft 
fein net al (eit iour Je cwocest vd tiewak giogove seen 
rt a texenss teonm eft) s~ lew bodoennas edi avs atic 
ye “mobrosanoo eff most wdiitiers efi Ho tego enor 
gO <MetTO/ does stoggae yi! soord koe: dels etiew 
‘xie xo evtt%o eeaot & ecitio avo Ri Bvread9 
Hkeasey, eilew to hemrot ete enoisiivwsg bas eebece? 
~~ hosted Ho HeslFEIT to  dgett10%- © ying gaigexeva 
5 Ge ai be gou~ danas oa (lem Sete lori na dQua-h oad 
ent vba fede Do wibeverg edgy dateds neve ton biuow df tee) 
fou ede gi voice Ji adrogava enote eifaw 19tido) titiw: Goldeet: 
| od yaey Reet eames Soh od vieeeeoen ote 
gister a er 0 Se Ripoe aves anor 
Gl etudons tions qnoy stand eos voy eunt 
eeernenal ot eub et ysiitdede aii yeooikd 


mk io eed 
beninonoos of aids need Bad ti coidv ods laa 
ea | 


ae 0 bua “stndoatidorw: 190" VSe P.eosga.? | 


x A evavavage nl: .a2e peed eyawls Jon Bea at 
zs b eved ei lew. Thay ou yuev cabwreil sa 


it Been: eroD wid i tg anne) hE eH): snail 
rite eae wokiOursende sehw joble eno) mo achiourdy 
ieut 2odaua evi Ud ovad TLiw Glew be soonsoo elt 
oe et y blenge vibaitueiece Ricahapinysne si, aa 


co Kigas eruiae st: eB? sa euthihe ta 

\Gothuse ed aeeeh tien bets load ‘asd nedt 

Lee ateaot gee Added wolscoisenoa gti’ to eld 
eos a lal pabia, aw said ons yiten 


Ny h al cia ee | UTE a ee ae ae en “pa a. 
7 ; 4% ‘ vor iy eee = 
oe ’ ‘ vip. nt ah ; 


112 

it. well.: 
Functions of walls are very diverse; in a general ways: 
may first, be divided into two sgroupe.;_ 
Isolated walls and connected: walls.,; 
The isolated wall -- such as the wail of an enclosure -- 
must, support, itself by its own structure, its intrinsic sta 
bility.: The connected wall -- the most seneral case -« borat 
rows. a part of its stability from its connection with other 
walls that, reciprocally support each other..: Dy as ee 
Observe in our cities a house of five or six stories; its™ 
facades and partitions are formed of walls with a thickness — 
averaging only a fortieth or fiftieth of their heighiy; wali 
Could such an isolated wall be constructed in space? Never,: © 
for it would not even resist the pressure of the wind.) The ¢or 
nection with other walls alone supports it,: which is the cons 
dition necessary to its resimaptontg a fo6 great. if the conr ect- 
ions are sood,.: be os ; 
vistas you. see beet raver wisn etisaiia oroceeds by on 


a) 


side i itis bdeneos Disikeres to ensure their stabidatge 
own mass, without recourse to their connections.: “Such 
tian architecture; and then you see immediately how ‘s1 
mode of construction contributes more than all elses to. 
architecture its proper character;-: for cxample,. compares 
plans of the propyleum of Karnek (Fig.: 82). and of that, 
Athens (Fig. 83); nothing can be more opposed, with tii 
struction on one side,. wise construction on the other 
The ‘die cabo wall nes have by ie ‘eureors aa 


ples of its son eeruowne b odie: apt incaveral ‘bo wales conn 
wall; the thickness alone varies according to the Law 


Gah aa a 


% mas) ary tx: \ ; ee GaN \ " 

ah a : ha h, ; 7 ont 

A eye dg ’ a > y 4 i," ’ 
pins ® ; : ‘ } 4 F 


Oy Pad 


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“eho He at PE: aeksortiancs dose» fapinos iets ch 

Te WSE Gi Lew figta RUS Biembars. ‘sfehine tye 
Dstaie edt igsrouqpe wakube Kodo and ‘z;beol os 
to edt ‘mor@ ‘Ghaadis edd of 3h. aeimegets has Claw 
Pisbiwahe Yads tutees” os basen y ode ¥ilstosage bus, 
Heese Bets He qsVO bodudiade ko od apa dk hey 


crs berin. etson05 jee v4 bat dareine (a8 ete) Jot 
eens to ebuswels edd oF Bathiooce snedelbidesf so 
pow Liaw eB gore, swt : Crate eonk ie faen 5 Wdkanad 
vas. dfoathiis base sonetsegos ai x fapowrs joc 
if Bentasdo ed bitow sleder ene ef Ser Line te wi Stes 
BY to. fn: Tisai jimreg Hobiw/(R0 .8l9) BieeTia so enck 
fae ialds cas Gols otok seenatq bent toad vi MABEL) Wo’ Leet? 
a3s  cebapdanle ‘baa sudipeeoet eth yo izoisonoss ete at 
im } God. ae. evendaidd fegoe la th atten poy. TF sens 
; ebod dakvies elio ceat eeslegy « ed Skiror 
ahi ates 
i ked: Gad We poy jetotSd gendle atat 
, raadiqioatig o«s 


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, 


io ce de dgeéine sd hivede STP Oe Fiiborn ty 
Mat boa-doneti((esdniddiw asctaylonon odd ic 
Ws disor ay bowiot <petts . lubiwatyg Jad? 8 
e ee igeowe  padwn lle Lee edad LaONE dh tin f 
Bree axe sed ae ne tigkies hae twice ditors ic 
paras Edad more sete ev dada ve ge) He Xo hasty 


le one is 


ot am De doker sed a Ka ais eo on: boats ae 
a pigee te iiev fedaekuion se sgt ses! PY aah me 
he of upy ded d Age RS) wiiobiange 49 7H 87% “oF ; 
te 0 i el ent NG Ret fogue ecw Le. ated fHiewil 
SwdGspeel zAcisoew. ean Yo eoaenh dase. 
et AES penn x sada 0!) poe? Seek Laan © 


en me te a 
: di kiew nthe akty th ‘oy 8h). bs 

Pitin, at 638 yea’ ‘Ne ae. M 

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“413 


Isolated Walls. 
As purely logical, each construction in masonry should be. 
pyramidal.; Assume a very high wall; its top course supports 
no load; the bottom cousse supports the entire weight. of the 
wall and transmits it. to the ground. From the bottom course © 
and especially the sground,to resist, that, considerable prey 
ure, it, must be distributed over an area sufficiently greate! 
The theory of the resistance of materials leads to a sect. 
ion (Fis.: 84) determined by two concave curved surfaces nore: 
or less distant, according to the elements of the calculation 
(density,: resistance, etc.;).: But such a wall would be incon- 
venient,: irregular. in appearance and difficult. to construct,« 
and in practice the same result, would be obteined by reena 
dons or offsets (Fig.: 85), which permit, the retaining of ve 
tical or slightly inclined planes,.: Note also that this wall 
is more economical by its recessions and is) also more stable 
then if you make it of equal thickness at top and bottom,: the 
would be a useless mass only serving to load the foundabgens 
tselessly..° : (aie a 
This places before you at, the beginnings of saab studies — 
two principles,.: a étadawm 
1.: Architecture should be enlightehed by science,: but, ap= 
ply the conclusions with intelligence and in a practical sen 
2., The pyramidal effect, formed by monumental arehit 
in footings,: batter,: hases,: plinths,: etc.,. is a Pabional) 
of architecture,: and satisfies both the eye and smth 
nage ot atic that we expect or oF any stone a 


or small materials or of mixed adifstink bead taal me 
these modes of construction corresponds a veel a 
ure.) First, ssi 2 sy uaa its wall of cut. stone,’ vane 


east Prawn at seep a noid age nities twice cheniel 
ually 1x12 ft: or 4408 * 1.08 = 2.17 £6,9- and oa 
ine the case of a wall with a thickness of one om 
siaweenn ae 


de tikw a Pena eye 
es Reha an “a vienteae ne bewror. unk ae 
oie Saecie tom bebiwih 24 aedd, bieatr we tv oY 
fae eae Ai) ae oes tiEot est erew never? 
oto ObOK. fe meveitaes bck da eee Bigkoa ire exer. 
moe en ‘hae (ues \ weomieide ett woo itew one Yo! rot. 


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yaventords arivae! ci? skew Pon BS6d erode ‘ 
Baeddoids stcnok Yo ifaw's maieawe (abe ved sade | 
fae Brooes ie eoeic neo wo 42S . RET) AA wee who é 
edd taiot et8HTO pertevne 7 i ed Lite a 6hols, acs ; 
Be ventives bi Holdotadenpo wild baa eyen toed nex ; 
| Sihiahbaaha mort peviren wreas 2) ehaisrtoesy igpad® | 
meets kotolah peas eoe' noe Lexodootixsta ac hee tows é 
Anica Os a ae edribead aad | 

mor CVE Cath) acoder, at fevet 

yh GR weeny patie We fePawiy 
Osan Vifsteo Jon ob wenbde gids out 

BR Asoc Anleatet tata : Nahe ewig ye Bs 

i Sdhbensalh eh 4 a0: Bribsouoss boeyvolsa oa 


bie we ce es an oie Cee fie verte > hen s ; se 
(WIG  sVO Stross Ass G0 Ri Io ho ae 
ay Bs ee Be se SRP er Oe et: te Go Perr epe rer We ne f 
, yet coe ha bee > Yawn SVOSTI VIS¥ Bl: QA wAroE lat 
7 hat oefe \ ‘ a 2 
oar So ae ei oy Lae i a We ipk iy 
asa ae Tesidryev. 660 <0 sien RYOTiO“: To BeeTEY 
ry 


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s ; Sa 
ron. bubond oes as Caer hag i PONS ROR Gs 
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oi: 

pets asernen 205 ceqtione: patinic' ToLeRoR ieee 
1d STOTT ED 6 en ‘6d9 & Tier tase ct eat WoL bee 
eidd Yo: velgmexe debe ade ered Jenpgk., Tie 
| iP ott aed tea: jotet eaFo. bieo%s £ adisatt ee 
| jesle 10 rien feesee then’ ele ee de BAe 
eUbe Stine Tieaey, ne tutor’ Bo) ont 


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114 . . 
B, (Fige: 87), ‘you will secure all the stability vossible,, have 
ing formed an entirety.: a 
Your wall should then be divided in horizontal courses 
broken vertical joints. a 
This principle is rigorous,: whatever the mode ofnarseea 
ion of the wall, or its thickmess,: ete.,: and the broken joint, 
on the facade must also exist. in the interior, when a single. 
stone does not, make the entire thickness,,; oi 
Then let us consider a walblof»doabbé thivckh esau first! 
course A,: A’ (Fis.: 88), ‘you can place a second B,: By. where 
the stone s will be in inverse order,: the joints being bro= 
ken both ways,: and the construction is excellent,: ‘a 
These jointings (a term derived from stonecutting). are as 
ancient as architecture.: For the first I cite the wall of. 
the Erechtheum at Athens or the magnificent tomb of pe 
Metella at Rome (Fis.: 89); for the second the wall of eae a 
ularium of Rome,: (Fis.: 89).: ee a 
But the stones do not, usually have this general regularity, 


jointing is very frequently regular horizontally,: 1.6.4): W 
courses of uniform height,. the vertical joints not; being 1 
ular.; Ib is also evident,: that, entirely resular jointing’ 
forms shal smh beauty.: : 


ple at ede dnd a Hei 90): fhat. is cphabeaueaaen withene 
iis benad ach tee the angles do not. become too acute,: for 
ally every. sents angle is dangerous, being too oe 


bits wedlemeeain are sb oun bime? examples of hig ona 
pant aa I should cite pi ee SEN from the histor 
er, as in the “walls of) Arsos) or: PB bibete's on cal these ortal 


on tive te dha in the aivednta of their. natural “stratit bi 
you find again the i tal to break joints.” i a 


: r ij ae 
vi 7 " - a -* r 13 5 . 
iD hk. pae Tila 4 ay eee " 
Yay, % '‘ a. “ony ‘ . , i o> 
sae o Te 2% r& iy ; ; : } ass 
i oA \ : vi ‘ 


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mini eye ata vou) ‘ese eilan. soba Bde ‘alien eledull. 
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canna i 


as Sled dn vec | e1h BExb Bae svebinegd lo fodny A kwo 
ke t 


9 94 Wi teheds ao 3 Ylietoeoss od la Mei ier: aeeqole 
Sid gona bal Lglierehe mieds seeveg Seiseg ‘YoeRal 
rs es RAG Ds by 
an eke Shi dei ysan ti etisn oF brake il oxek 
5a wie: abet ao: seats Fqserd wo eolgnexs ed HOY o8 
pss Peleus eugiias Ile rat ETH Jen VrnowBe Io pee TTA “0 
etSh or. por “~erose FO evade aston sitdis dee Ae Ae Bade 
Pguoexe spetiee Hilw each of ylno reo eidd dele I Low 
fiieer 2 penoood ‘gue Vivenoes” 46 Khe le Send terodia add 
Miuped yisy ainicg. cindiss de Byuobo Jeusaoe ealstsante 
pel “sornezesy webar | Beet bisiow vesodn add! Bare), hie 
(eplealdpette go Bide nord tid fuse Roupeo ait eiria 
aay 1 qhedssehsexs: ini dos ive ¢ hisw ond saide daa od 
£ t Etvs fen ae Gesneth ody exet-3q efgnel edv “ght 
‘ useage ety Yo vendita aid. bevossen qila lesa 
Y eyde sattenenih tere (Mega No [TIO semen? 
Pemerbiske arsood -.belduobiceuticnos tnied 
fee Seema adutaft eds Bnsod neds 
1s | | | | goNRS He 
jomupes Vinee éigete 4 itew s )beteeis ge tl 
pag edt He Be HOSE SHPVSEG oto wR: DOPo Scere vow eh 
aes eeonnds. ehh “io VY iieed CLS wacaene wold 
made hou ats work set heowt Liveed Taiasoya 4 
Mad, Wer?) fetinneh don bas ary toe StA OM Prine £ 
1 ehgogind 2 no ideaeek do be Pea ood) at fon *hotdan 
ee Baers esy 30 algasbolgmy: to elinivetshe. dest evad 
Beit No coe let eLenords Bowl Ms Cee eh) ive 2 gos 
be Caero% RE Melee So NedMe Pas (Ss ei docistoLt 
£48 Mohave. jesctaacivers doetYa! ivttenen siiope: tathy 
ese ves Pienoo ahd. Unged » Hobvargons nend isdieds ote 
, . land Penteredeh ai grow yne to anode Uguey ont 
¢ alsy Hasire bedinaent: gi¢ Xo aepbe ers Re peed, 
bofvae eget ieatd Hashome. Sho obdnd? 4 ge PeArse, 
yaad dee esq adnial set eam Noon) HRese eda 
m Vee. pened wie ake eaneod Nee ots ecols 
ie 7s ng hetryeee ever st. audie 
nttonpadd Ye: besten ene ea 


antl K bay bei MB; 


«ahaa tacked edd Re) waolstogarg et’ 


ra 


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bb 


115 } Hh ‘7 Wid 
Rubble walls and brick walls are Soverned by the same la 
‘ the proportions of the materials alone differing.: Walls of 
rough rubble,: boulders and grit, are rather: analogous to © 
clopean walls;. also especially for the latter the combina 
tion by mortar causes their solidity by making true art 
monoliths.: i Ghat 
Here in regard to walls,: I. must, speak of a beauty unknc 
to you vy examples,e= except those born near Nimes, Orange — 
or Arles,: of masonry set, dry.; In all antique arch 
stones are set without, mortar,: stone on stone.; You unde: an 
well that, this can only be done with perfect, oxecnsien aa 
the theoretical plane of seometry here becomes a reality, foi 
otherwise contact. occurs: at, certain points,: very heavily lo: 
ed, and the stones would break under oressure.’ Need: I. dese 
cribe what beauty results fron this perfegtion? Pe geph oe ng 
Do not. think the word perfection exagserated; 1. was meas e 
ins the Temple of Mars the Avenger. at, Rome, and lL hag very 
Sat ee Ly: Lipgniies the: stones: of nike subst ruebaree: Tay Love 


cares: 7 wey 
If s@ treated,: a wall of simple masonry assumes: am: 
ue, not, suspected before having seen its the beauty) 
tion ensures the beauty of the monument,.: ; 
For: a superior beauty results from the construct 
is@s,1 the architecture and not. required from any lat: 
ration.; Such is the case with Tuscan or Etruscan walls, 


mY 


aces Fated (Pigg 94he) Ratach ekebearhalaeneee the. 
Florencet? Fig.; 92) Bae adn of Bolom in Portaseane 


are better than decoration,: beings a oy cosa 
the rough stone of any sort is deternined the vert 
face,, or the edges of the inscribed orisn,: this ol 
marked by pitching off around the face,: leaving the 
the stone as it, was.; The joints are not, drafted,: th 
tions are not bosses,: but the stone itself with all 
sity.: [ have measured on Palace ‘Pitti. projections of 
from the olane of the wall.: | 5.6 


ware bi hed ee Ae atten eb oat Ca a AM? A OM Pie 2 aw 
al io sis ae wicks 74 Neat Oh aes Ay Mh A Sil RO CE te baie fa 


\ f ‘ 4 i ‘.% - 
i Yee beg Ww Sek A ee Se ee a F , A 
, es eae ? . > eva 
yee hep Pare Va r i 
: fi ees -§ “2 stk x! ‘ 
; ’ ¥ 


1 ga il ca 5 Mal aac ee 
nxt ea to aearakons’ Yxenitsn eek ei ‘panies ke ded. 
at 8F jLTge beaoussenco eas. 0 pokinod a oval 
af. “gaseneoen edd ddtw harowbk hook’ Rae uo tonedxe amok? © 
wa I beni0} e1ay senol sedotda east wisaihe a sede: 


P\¥ 


Ga fegelgac: ai. Dien’ ens yftenke esKode segrords 
, ies lode. denas Od Od Veane ne eRe. ei WAC? wait) 
has ‘enote. ets . aPout Is arose tte, avito@ivash UE 
ge egew So. (het oc Lite ecotot ods tna dasaragds 
gle ,eeoinipo ia ten -bevoedona ed Yeve Claw 
OES TC ar ae | Piha vated “a8 caarod 
Benita F sé Lig baat hie fivens eis vet ealutoo ent 
ets allow ‘gente Lowe aignie, yi lelooqee: bas efie¥ 
rowadans dud atenrs) leaden dectiz vo celis ye medsia, 
Wettrstoss t sevbdaciidors fagnennrom nt dikpae 4d 
~ aR ipa toe £8. Saba -amediced wollet o@.nov Rate fyb. sande 

apg 7 , NKGY geentota cdi ceivd, Sh ohed 

* es j dnt Beowors JHEED a6W dS i ELew @ dootorg oT 

Ga bIdlasoc. ao. .eeseto ag h aa ak. ence 

“4 Seay a Vd beoawete .adafiof, To vedova 
Poteotore ens bainwer eofnia9 ene. ed 
“ia OSHS a one extremes pata: HED» setholl* 

Bs seen bossa g On oN rede 
ig se.» en? elerieneq Jonoso; sedan ii ave 
e8asenol 02 Beetint. eons: fre, (lew eds nwoh 
oa emole Hies 6 esiwoo « sosrntog. dele ba tices, 
tegaw eis O58 CRO BE fy Uiew e639 to eoed eds “broy 
Beepirs1 piesa has duew edd @Wob udinnoy redie enod 
Bie! 8: Pi. wot Wisvcooen nedd gt tt .ifen etd Io eos 

| ‘fearee. Si me°03 duo tebas em Besedane wobou ond exe? 
Brsed cat tele edt sheds apiddem anoted ito [let of 835) 
gerk SPR of nent ABR EET) wotwh ddim, sinh yee 
okin mY Mev Eniges edd Ae aumioas? antder Sno’ | 
teal Isotiver éa2 Seda Balcon qiiont’ bre ayegal: | 
be griSivor Riad ie ud beanare al at reatien end 
roo Iseub ety ever: pay hoa siveen afte eossT).,.” 

ei imeedts to aeekrqotd edd nOvt) ehumere >) ') 
BAS hedpienot gasit ectaxge. SBS a0NT sae 
ne sve igph..ovek emt ibigom: ‘SecKu hoe tewol. va 
ti at bas. te pien: ake Ydisentaoh Syer. oie 
eae ayer te, Boe, saneeiat bbe 


‘sia 


aaa . in 
Let. us return to more ordinary condibions of construct it 
Fake a portion of the constructed wall; it has its. ‘Senet 
tions extending to good dround with the necessary footings; | 
then a plinth or thicker lower part, formed of larger and 
stronger stones; finally the wall is completed to its hefsht 
(Fis.: 93). It has an enemy to be feared, the rain that. cause 
the destructive effects of frost.; If the stone be soft yh 
absorbent. and the joints will be full of water,: so — the 
wall must be protected.: Hence the cornices.: vet ye ae 
Cornices.: : a 
The cornice is the crown and shelter: pie a valle 
Walls: and especially simple enclosing walls are protected 
either by tiles or sheet metal (zine).: But instruction must, 
be sought, in monumental architecture; I prefer: the cornice: | 
stone,: advising you to follow carefully the reasoning that. 1 
brought, it, to its richest. fornm,: i reas ery. 
Fo protect, a wall,: it, was first crowned by a course of hard 
stone in as longs pieces as possible,: go as to diminish the — 
number of joints, crowned by a wash to. throw off water.: Ph 
is the cornice crowning the enclosins wall of Prison panies 
“Hote. Ut. brorvections tw briaone ave bortidden, + hence + 
cobing has no bropeeltons ! ‘ 
But. if water cannot; penetrate the top of the wally, ae 
down the wall and thus injures it.; Hence the idea of a | “i 
jeeting slab,: perhaps a course of hard stone projecting fe 
yond the face of the wall (Fis.: 95).: But the water wets. 
stone after running down the seuss cs asain follows: the 
ace of the wall. It, is then necessary for it, to fall as 
fore the under surfaces are. under cut so as to compel thee 
ter. to fall off before wetting them.: The slab has: become « 
ping with drips (Fig.; 96).: Then to sive sreater projectio 
out risking fracture of: the coping, it. is a 
ings,: and. finally noting that its vertical face is: soil 1 
the water, it is: crowned by a drip moulding to reject 
Trace this result and you. have the Greek connie ae 
example from the Propyleum of Athens. (Fig. 97).-: 
Thus the cornice first consisted of a copings with iene 
lower and upper mouldings: less important than ai 1 
ways dominating in height and projection. In the infinite: ve 


ones edd Oheoy. deeme Vib clin 
‘Agveriber Sod: To habe’ eit to sbvii7 
w eVomET oF 8GolR! TOCaD es fevee'ts 
biveea hr Sha thieves, sta 56TH. pealsaer Bite. 
Bo <a tt poe eyande ney $8 .( BR nth) twee lqvexs 
ee es soesuions isvestben er nis, won? Pigw e1F gei 
_ apa Biiy. Gide sedankls: nei svod exon at vi Lars 
rS$a%00 Sip? behnsrse edd we odiiosioie Jaett 49? 
g ReoRTTTE fish ian. Sine Bestine ota. vellane Adin vi 
jd oeitn Paar id eouadoae fh y, dewey wrpsoedidnns 
ae tse “ynestis 

| petsyectioo pid de63 avenibar od smaege) son Ob T 

on Pho; wo od) eliasilade Od Joa; OLuiet eolpiae eopkd 
ied PREC Os % walt Ri wragine 4 gc bivow atid 
Ch ee ee Rigen apaateleet end 26% dns F1ogms Bf ‘Si aoe 
eno, AS? pornsco ate Io God ed% Jake to» gor tie4 
Paes vont. Lmot eee sia! feoxe head andi ropos 
Mage aids Saiincagra nwond ke To tagg 
ala ous ase Sel List Ge isi .ans Ba hid). 
| wistlinevarg 39 vidoe? 


Wein 1 Zevon od srehutg ah #2 Lenoney al 
pci doen, uae ei. teen ud pedwieegia: 
Ju. beroe? edod 


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xs 


te shall see its application later; I wxplain the t 
With different, forms the same principles. and care | 
tives of the design of the mediaeval cornices,: ‘Archite 
ereased the upper slope to remove water more raprargr an 
this resulted different mouldings and an apoearamce as in th 
examples.; (Fig.: 98), But, you always see the idea of protect= 
ing the wall from rain.: Yet mediaeval architects, working er 
erally in more Southern climates and with stone: less: sui | 
for sreat. projections, : have arranged their cornices accord a: 
ly with smaller projections and with surfaces exposed to 1 
Architecture must find varied solutions: when the problems — 
differs: | 2 Sates 
- do. ners assume to indicate. chant the abit. of 81 fi 


rom 


eddbag ih aebivnbecuebenier bute wotall is) Genre 
ting the rain to fall far from the wall). devia boio's 
effective protection,; 

In general it, is prudent, to cover with metal pro. 
nices,: when the wash is not much inclined: Rain is 


to be feared at all architectural projections.) 


LS 
7 
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ay Psoiivey fae fs JdovbaGh he i; tore iddee 
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recs aha 1keiie ae tere hese toed say ed eae. te 

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bet OWS HEEB LES bevinakis lay sto eben yaa: 
sate bsdeloet ae Yo rved Bod enosolina othuy ef 
agence | Yolshdom ech Jon darct gro Dib hee: egoneerdd: 
Be seoe eno ng evan” ae a eee ada d Rife temes 
hte 1 SE ribhrowe TE eden hye 
aah» ei iee: pandges teh to enoidoueraitat ah 
Demmatsilen etl .encicoeons FloAs ut opel 
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AOU ety heath tied ed} toe 


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| | he cep oat ‘ehoog hs 
pate biveats Spe aged eitev, YAav Vedcu sal: Ham 
ee any nbahen Lereped: eetiy os edd ‘Ae au0k ee hue a 
mote Paige et des 2) law eeons ded oie de oF Wak UN 
: e goo a Bropaty veiatasvhy Lag weetn. “one 6ten 
ic iaa a eeing vais “<ipny yor 
eet a oe et wrtaw tg Mpxteaut qnvis Wo wet ke 
{eplaside ef) Nanci siinod Lebsaceee’ sat.) 
nS AD Paago esa bak \yathtiow est et eas). 
es ei ie arab) dona Etiam besnogicn, eat; 1 
Sy Ae zt ) iddin site, oa 
Ne Ben inage -c AO onk wet) | oe 
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Pk ie a San Cok ee ae ee as 
4 , > y : =e 


| are | a 

CHAPTER II.: WALLS; CONPINUED.: Ons 

Connected and Combined Walls: cuppa 

SUMMARY.: «- Connected walls.: ~~ Various. cases of intere 
section of walls.=~ Danser. of disjointins.+- Free treatment,: 
simplicity.  -- Combined walls of different materials.+- Equa 
settlement. -- Horizontal and vertical combinations, -- Sys= 


tem of construction of Roman walls.; «» Vertical lines of ” 
‘Cae 


‘Ae! >"> 


quoins.’ 
beaving the isolated wall,: we shall study the pene 
It will be external or internal,: and for the oresent,: doo 
ways. and windows will be omitted.: | e 
Any portion of a %wall comprised between two intersectiol 
is: quite analogous to a part of an isolated wall,: for ee 
thickness may differ,: but not, its mode of construetion.: Als 
generally this wall will have but one. sida eli external, oom 
and none if internal.: AR) ee 
At. intersections of different walls appear special prob] 
leus in their cdnnections.: The conditions of these besbeaiy a 
sections may be reduced to three general kinds. ~ ti aie 
1.: Connection of two walls at. chedr enae,, 135 aun Bes 
angle of the building (Fig.; 99).: saa 2 
at ana a of the ond of one wall with another con 
ous wall; such is the case of a partition wall joining : a 
Ara wall ay (PEG. 1091.6 Fey 
3.. Connection of two continuous walls,: like two. inters 
ind internal walls (Fig.; 101); all surfaces are then” int 
nal, or if at, the angle of a court,: then will there 2 bet 
facade faces.: j,i 
cag other end f Geka ements’ Tha on iy are uerely appl 


ness or of: at rferedt naterials,. visible or. not, | soeordia 
their: purposes.: . ait 
Now in every junction of walls is to be Poareae a separ 
fhe essential condition of the stability of a masonry st 
ure is’ its solidity.; And here again it is ®#nsured by bon 
Phe connected walls must have as many stones in common a 
gible with bonding of'-the joints.: : | 
Thus in the first, case may be obtained a certain ‘ponding 8 
a rane simple jointing (Fig. 102); yet. thoush this. jointin 
hind eae 


» ¥ ; inf ; / ; ies - 
Meee Tye Sa pees i ie Riko! SSM Re tay FEO AY alt tii ee 


+ 


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ii 


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i Liaw 08) ‘Shifactad @ weoode bps B Llew Jo. sasy @ 
ata a “Palenerte HRT HG LL iw patente, notied A 

yee hos Bed orks Wibtaotesis bas, £3 fet) ddod of ace 
¢ i wosreee. oi eenhoed: Videooenog af) tneeppnarre ehet 
cya SP tb tog petvew, bok eobese Aes ak esl erat 
- in dee7h ee Ot Gisteoven evsndeek Ob BOA’ (dake 
dT ssetbitod « to hi eas: 76" vabitlidede mate 
| jadw gadactbhat-ete: (Lie6 to snekereatan to 
ie ap iis bas wegeayes | he ent oote? ed baa oLde 
phd factors. eeoih ehtvba 2k? ‘Ider wadaepen' sede 
rt Bi ‘ear ouy, signe or kart aloe: wey 
Beas 90 22300 tia 8 don. feurene Hoktong, wade need 


pod aye Ls: Eilts httdniet Jeed sdb onde ‘edd od 
ee ae Caos (hem Owe Ode Ok Mamads none e 


| gi SE) hood ak Jevw sndwode: se} ta 

be figitooupen} fkoonsle mnt 08 one ed) dail 

1fD* Ob gEe Of ta Goro heifer. e4¢ Noede tte 
St ne. diverts ° ed Luger ncivoursenas Hou i pie 


; Ladinfoittoant aa an gy biti sibabe tins 
wow! Liew s toa ties as) ris god modh 

[eeeR tio. ma. berted eh, ie tat:jents HPStENie Koos 
Sines? nese Peoiioend at hentdg od Yeved hivody 
Win eliav sénideth ond eve eilgas. GHA, soX TOG 


; Mee ia ei) Satbwed totde ot eongs oo mER ly 
“Se bee Mieeldnexs +o) Sane.eds fon ef ah) todd oe 


Bidote, noidowpdanso. & ded awe | aba) 
re vipa danon)a, et eieet “abe htpebay' je 
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4 Them, et RE 5 Leni he eget ite ad) 


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- f ad os ou tea At? q | a 


ge - 3; ‘ fe. ey 
it hee oe ey * Mh 7 : Lr. a y 
a, sth aie SAR RR ae ik 
a ki aa 1 i ae 
i 
i) 
» 


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as f eB: ieael benolieenocaecho ove end Sov eno na Wed’ 


sont d oO bea! &gel peowe le ho ous eens | 


ay iy veda ‘eed OF, na toles ies weno) 


119 " 
is quite sufficient, in many cases,. i% does not, entirely pres 
vent diagonal disjointins;. under the effect, of internal 
oressure,: the angle may open as in Fig.; 105.; This: is becaus 
no stone here actually belongs to. both rallsshonee being 
a part, of wall A and stones B belonging to wall B,: 

A better jointing will occur by arransins stonwet really ¢ 
mon to both walls and alternately like a,:.a and b, "pCR 
fhis arrangement is more costly because it, assunem eee 
angles in the stones and waste,: but it, is perfect, as construc 
tion., And it, is always necessary to pay great, care to the st: 
of the stability of theeanShe of a building. The Connery a 
of cornerstone of a structure indicates what should be inmov 
able, and is found in all languages and all agess:; oy 

Then remember well this advice,. whose. principal aoplicatio 
you will find in angle gquoins.: a 

When the junction occurs,: not, at, an angle of: tho building), 
but, in one of the two cases: mentioned later, the theory wilt 
be the same.: The best jointins will always be that, employin 
stones common to the two walls,: i.; e.,: in form of oi Mi te onl 
case: and of a cross )a,: a and b,: b). in the other (Fig.: 105).: 

After showing what, is good, it. is perhaps useful to see ~ 
what, is not. so -» although frequently used.; Assume the inter: 
sections: of the walls. A or. B as: in Pig.; 106; you can already 
see how good construction would be difficult, in these condi= 
tions; it is truly necessary to torture the materia’ ai.) ea 
tain bonding,. and yet these are insufficient... i ee 

When for: arrangentat orceffect,: a wall cannot. be continued 
in a straight line, this is termed an offset, An eee 
Should never be abused,: is practical when frank as in ae 
for you then really have two distinct. walls with an inte: 
diate space in which bonding is possible,: but. you must, see 
that, it, is not the same for examples A and B.; 

This: shows that, a construction should al nana be. frank « an 
not. undecided.; This is a constant. rule,: and you will stieuel 
hear that, a thing is: frank or not frank,: an Silat. in: one 
case,: criticism in the other.: | 

In all the preceding, it is well understood,, carael % ay 

only theoretical indications,: reblly susceptible of num Ls 
‘varistions.: But. theoretical rules determine the aren tteeea 
al traditions,: that. you will have: to study,: and it, is this, 
that, it, is important. for you to know first.: Bi 


by L, 
ng x 
a 


fae hs Se Ga a penew hia tad 

i he gl yoneea use SaMebeds. poubaoy’ vt as 
tater press eboA On ob py) Weeecosn wot | Aaa 
hs) SYN 1. itige Le Dae oe Ane th oo fawee clam 
oid festat us witodvais oo alentdice {fae et. 
| “ant ese! ABS Res Ghd pi ewe Dae’ oh make aay 
é bamefadas Mingtadidnes» (ete tesem vedi tite ae 
divi wees ‘ah wixtiog oo vals bingdacya el bds 12 

i to. fotsoesisen| has Reternd to sadam vd ey evla 
set Xedee Gite pueda Id cos latde wl. wine ads 
bead Go mosdusbayeth agtivitel <a? Bh: rie a) bibs 
vie eodalen 6 ints’ wanted sit ome Lt og Levee Gers 
4) : ‘ Resch of ql md Levee ‘be dow one> 
Bias, koe: G2Ofo.86e To Gabvonson ie ee i 
bag Wigreste hie) Adu Teo Cs ent 5 sis Yeti gaa pad paves 
y heen am mpetat Lo aot sree! €ta. ¢ fed oeton Thea: 
bieik £5, 6.0) “ehode athe SG) setis & joo a eoxk 
paar a: sade éoinweo bys baw vy kn ahd Ro 08 
Fic. werkt. Fetaneiiok owe: sth deenaes ot 
snk? oF eleire den Ag Suvtsinie ed Sea i 
mednog Jeotisey odd fae Ietsos trod ane a 
foe i beband: vise tian od) Phew aba TE 

a ote gost ‘eGldenidues Tadnox tron eae aL. 

s | sn Iiens ‘Fo. bina Soda TO estos Lay peur te 
er dane’ a, pedi. Berok to) fastierol sit. top itew | 
ou We, EB aveind Sis. SAGA %e His sur eS Te. weakens ar 
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120: 


Compound Walls.: 
fo. conduct, these primary studies from the beginning,: it, is 
how necessary for you to know compound walls, 1.6.3: those ¢ 
posed of different, materials.: | | al 
The wall entirely of cut stone is: indeed a luxurious. constr 
tion,: and even in monuments are frequently employed: stone 
with other: naterials,: particularly. rubble: and bricksa: , 
Stability should. always be sousht in these systems; it is © 
always by means of bonding and intersection of the materials: 
that this is obvained.: But. there are other considerations,: — 
and first, is the judicious. distribution of the aaterials,. a 
with equal settlement,: whether this relates to isolated es a 
eonnected walls.: | 
In a wall composed of cut, stone and small materials,: ston 
Sives the reality and the appearance of strength and of bask 
smell materials are proper: for filling.: Thus it, will beclegae 
ical to first. make of the stone. the plinth,: that forms the bs: 
of the wall,: and the cornice: that, protects ik.: | a 
Between the two horizontal lines of base and: cereal .. 
there be a mixture of materials,: we find two seers method. 
the horizontal and the vertical combinations.: re oe 
If the wall be uniformly loaded, nothings is more. logical 
than the horizontal combination, i.e.,: alternation of fea 
or unequal courses. of stone and of small materials,: like @ 
walls of the Hospital of: Hotel Dieu at, Paris (Fig.: 107),: or 
again an alternation of rubble and bricks as at, Museum a 
These combinations indeed have the advantage of ensurin 
equal settlement.: Settlement is a slight loss in the height 
of a work in masonry under the pressure of its: owm weight. 
and the loads supported by it,: produced: in the mortar of the 
horizontal beds; neither: the. stones: nor the bricks: yield,: bu 
the bed joints.: Then the more numerous the bed joints,( the | 
Sfeater the settlement,: and with equal heights a wall come — 
posed of ten courses: of cut, stone will settle one-tenth as a 
as a wall of a hundred courses of bricks. ( 1 here assume m0 
settlement, due to the soil);: | . 
The consideration of settlement, may afford a motive for ve 
judicious departures from the principle of bonding.: We find 
a very instruetive example at, the Coliseum.; The facade 


Diuttettena dared 131 in idee igeherelivee elidigsen. 
aaah atl Om! Gosid Joebaba esivev: yenode 
hutveeseog has eposvetoiod. Ylssotieas,e17se sonite 
ry hed avoitiog eae) voonted wea? ;.i fendi ot 
fiose ena to. Sifew ofitasonos edP eter gyses edd 
ifasuees yd be dosanon ecetemos Braevenoisd at 
certs asfoouesonod yitesiieg sedvoos oufe Bs Bio 
Seva) bas, Rap 889. eae Va rLdede Awo JbRE | désa 
d iNew enose:) #62 nosKves ,08 of sromnar .dalivo eds 
ro} dove eid Ro efisn ‘oinineosos ads) has pooldxod 
ation eves s CBOE gt9) -enote baod e doa) natdonn 
yo tease: to dnebasgebal wlecelgnco ate Sabi eve t 
a ie. poet | etoltaveb ienoe bpaTStbai, a eionexe evi 
Be a ‘i wephe dose nk Joodidota, of¥ 
Ne geen od Van denied: Petnceivod 26 nuivonrisned 
a doe! ixforrs gmacofonhivinalrotdtss,..pdnsapaon, Int 
foredives hetolooino enote odd anode i yintaes 


2» er | eeeas it lsh isaisy yd 
Ptele ay gbasd. ledoontsod wo Nolety sa 
3 10 bexesealy od cd allen at seve : winiovey 
¥ Sy attr Bi kyd of: “acidouisenos to boddem 8 el x idl 
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| ansaes & sot neds 4 OO wits slo hod= Yo: gw iet Satie 
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q 


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fe “pibidd to eeitoo ven a “iiastt. redron bua: RoAOTE | |, 
ae Yo massed (edd tafod Sninevoc peti ywod YO Peery 

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Bi Gaibd eure o6t flor solnd » Ye sess. visvexo nt 8k 
oe ee yes bit eed) 304 Bescauce 


121. : a 
wall is there of cut stone set. dry and consequently without 
possible settlement; behind it, is an oval wall also of cut, 
stone; vaults connect. these two walls, forming an annular ~ 
agructure,. perfectly homogeneous and possessing a stabil ty 
in itself.: Then between these porticos and the arena beneath | 
the seats are the concentric wails of the sections; these are 
in bricks and conerete,: connected by rampant, tunnel vaultss; 
This: is also another perfectly homogeneous structure,: having 
also its own stability.) But one can and must. settle, while | 
the other cannot. do so.: Between the stone wall limiting the 7 

porticos and the concentric walls of the sections: is no con= 
nection, not a bond stone (Fig. 108); these walls are in cons 
tact,: but. are completely independent. of each other; an ieee 
ive example of judicious considerations,: that. wits, aa 
the architect in each case.: a 
Construction on horizontal bands may be seen in very beauti 
ful monuments,: Particularly in Tuscan architecture of the 14¢ 
century,: where the stone or. colored marble clearly accents: 
this idea. It has always: the inconvenience of taking from 
the wall the appearance of unity, more readily imparted to it 
by vertical lines.: | oe 
Division by horizontal bands is also found in Roman archi« 
tecture,: even in walls to be etaaciaiie ty or covered. pie oer 
This is a method of construction.: To build walls: of very 
great, thickness,: the Romans placed a horizontal layer of ou 
eral rows of bricks (Fig.; 109),.then for a hebght. of abontt3, 
ft.-,: they constructed the two faces of the wall either of | 
bricks or rubble,: Senerally triangular; the middle space be= 
tween these faces was then filled by a concrete of small : 
stones and mortar; finally a new course of bricks closed this 
sort of box, its covering being the bottom of the succeedi 
box,: and thus. pomiimneds) Th practice was only suited for 
very thick wales: As: for the: external appearance of these: wal 
it is exactly that of a brick wall,: the faces a ve 
composed of bricks,: y 
The combinations: of walls very Prenaetey consist, of’ “soa 
ical divisions, these either resultins from the costo 
or merely intended for decoration.: 
Bhen in a wall (always assumed solid) there exist. versie aL 
divisions of cut. stone with small materials, the stone is a 


iby vy 
a 


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poy “Wonkddood Bemyes of Ca ce) Re Oe 
dsl ain: don i gethdbod add to poitostorg edt! .e 
“ene 3k: Pe hnthEe? $00 20 etnden OhY OO, ehheded 
oat PMs racttostery bhi) ,daode et dio Vee 
fithaod Book's ro? od sehrol at “edaerhy 
® (iiew, etd Yo Snivntot edd to tend at 
i lasroy is seeds ‘To Jetlox ef ded ka hep 
Elen ddottin not Hdpetorq ebdd egaind so an itu 
uote) xozes ‘@ 26 40. puoi siddst ato dipie! 


oe 
7 


i: ati? 


ae ens haiti pe eene: 48.) Sd) ie abs any Sr cat 

std To wideien Jedd. yrersedye Anied! gon axtstad to 
| ageuned $O Wodusn soardena adit orgs Java onode 
PRA ELIT? ett to oruisa and oF Mnthinoss endl 
x setae ont: ai od bani tits Ratan ledigvey add, 
ay PAM at it» HOt eke GEE AE 
Sisk Nugheeiate dese case yeilor psa et} 

saya No Seven Bapitded ro wolvdi tee: ata? 
Av heentia ed deom Yeas AY -yemae ede Od) DLkw 
Poe demiene 300 ai i suphuahe bisa! 9g Mace | 


ia a wi) piss te olen aes ie - ‘ < we ‘hy be wate 
; ‘Sor Ri : , a wy Ents 
uw “wd Re 


€ .« a > t ‘ ] q 
‘ 6 tal an asi, f : oe 
4 va AAA uk ‘5 yp wet ‘A 
ry Ts a) WS hie) AM wae aD) as: ‘2 ae ce m . 
i] ee. , Sv 7 
Fe 4 ee 


We, . At , 
ue, Ae 4 « al he bike Ons vu Py. : 7 i BA, 
ORE | oon | es 
4 a ; 4 ig ™ 
ta he hal: if: a ait: Lat a 
, hon ney, hy PRY 
cy \ 4 ¥ t, ing de - 
ye me is:: Re ean hie anes 
- 


te A a RE Se 


| 122 Pi 
urally indicated for the parts most, heavily loaded; junetions 
of walls,: divisions beneath Sirderd,:. etc. Superposed . 
courses of stone thus forming a vertical support. are term 
ed intermediate quoins (chaines),: distinguished ehiceri y 
from angle quoins.: : oy 
In a wall so constructed, the cut stone will occupy the 
least, surface, and between the intermediate quoins is: saa { 
the filling. Fis.: 110 exhibits the theoretical elements of 
F pide ne ieee calls for the following remarks. . 
- Quoins consist, of regular masonry; it, is best, that. hol 
Beste of eourses be odd,: and that: the vertical eames 
and end with longs blocks.: th hee 
-B,: Quoins are cut with the stones alternately projecting,« | 
SbORES bo babuke Mba bonding or: junction with the spell mae 
terials of the filling.: The excess in lensth of the +eRey 
stones (a,: a) is bieraed toothing.: | ee, 
3.. The projection of the toothins is not, arbiiraryieeeell 
depends on the nature of the fillins.: If the fillingigee ioe 
self cut. in stone,: the projection of the toothing will be 
Sreater: in order to form a good bonding, this study will then 
be that, of the jointins of the wall,: simply accented at the 
quoins by the relief of those stones; if the filling be im. 
rubble or bricks,: this projection will be half the average 
length of a rubble stone or of a brick (about, 5.9 to 7.9 
ins.: for rubble,: 4.3 to 4,7 ins.: for bricks).: mee cole 
- if the filling be of bricks,: the height, of the courses: 
is ‘ete not being arbitrary,: the heights of the courses: of 
stone must agree with an exact, number of courses of: brickss: 
Thus according to the nature of the filling,: the forms of 
the vertical gquoins will vary as in the three examples{ Figs. 
44953 4229 LAS a 
For internal walls,:if they must. remain visible, as in cer 
tain vestibules or porticos,: naves of churches, ebes;. the rm 
will be the same.; If they must, be covered by plaster ee y 
facing, the same regularity is not. necessary,: provided tha’ 
the requirements of the construction are observed,: 


= 


i Ake . 
a hers Ataverrioo addad EEE ARTA 
ent hid hophbuentaaae damier 
hte da igobebneds: enawes ‘Riot bas Mie ths hen’ ae) 
oh Canndeetivets ’ Ge fo 2ilueet sestieaeegae bests 
me unit pees: Panther TOE h: Hitters sanod Yo adeette ent 
vy alia =~ (a@ifew, [enteadol das Lentadeh em) snr in 
Swill bese lowt Meee livede «+ \ieoy lt bas) eee sa 
py iagnene cow ne veilaw Ro donniesa gh a+ ap seuersd 
rai ahr enemy aeansa ls tT ~sseserxokde (oaers 
pre . Wied pura hd mie WRU S 
eet: as ay | | 
naece Ded biee 6ad (Id Beoddoidy eK s: aeitrine emse add al 
ger eonssnrotidd eft To aolsenittedeb ed? aay 
B a0) bia Besoatiiac ed aan deds eJnegele theta TTLh 
RS) 4.0 § Ye ae Re Sie ae 
sai ailee Atte Sekt uolnuae i Yore dnomerLoped “t 
| | em Sede chlo ov To SOMO TLOGOR (ae 
¢ Bebetises a Ro ASotio As takuieddd -2h 
aga feubsos fidote as io ed{ieen odd iB 
Rowe eet gavw eiiah = .WaivoutJeno 
OR ms reno} Gd) pwors digsreve “oOo: Uearo gs 
jel. oe Medigl oft ,etdzesiq: yd toa aa isot 
ed od 148: Peassitva ([stedsu swrpxrodt yO TO edeucity 
i por): eiapacsczeiin wivod east eevigoct iisn a) Th 
Bane had ede haa gical ites f AuPETLops seilw yavivev 
Y , ‘tate. eye Ad oie aotes wate Ae 
| pievs: [fiw soidéuedamos Bo yhude oftiiae 
Selaate YISyY ots enotsesipetey , ‘heaves se Beaks: ve 
ed anidtoa aad i, yregecoed widv ens. dnd. 2ee9 
ef waskis Shimeeset O38. 16 eAtdiet oF feors oF and: 
m1: Prev Ag Rete ed bihmes woleLad vod ak ego ee 
SH eses, gailt famtenat: TORT, nibuheste ene Lie 
pat): oF fyeket: nt sgadtad .brobes odd ah waned. 
008 a Eiik deeseo1s old: mad Joesdlorw edy eliaw 
A oNs hymn ket dows bas ited Jnened oe (Yo dotooy tl 
eo eltaieb oint Batre sao noditin Vseees¢ te dv 
eitipa tthe’ SE aflow cai paitog: appetite: Tonge bite f 
ee 


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be So a ee iy PAN 


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| | 123 aoe Mes) 

CHAPTER III.; WALLS; CONTINUED. . o>. She fi 

Study and Thickness: of Walls.: : q 

SUMMARY,.: «- Thiekness of walls determined by requirement 

of construction and of climate; obtaining an effect or a dew © 
sired appeerance; results of an architectural decoration.; «= 
The effects of construction upon walls.: <= Case of equilib” 
rium.: -- Externel and internal walls.) -- Walls with firee— 
places and flues.;=- Stability of isolated walls. -- | 
Buttresses.: «= Appearance of walls.: -- Monumental power of g 
Sreat, thickness.: -~ Thickness resulting from successive off 
sets. = Overhanss.; | . ae 


In the same edifice the thickness of the walls generally 
vary. The determination of the thicknesses results from very 
different elements,: that can be collected in four general q 
CAaUSES.: 

1.: Requirements of construction.’ 

- Requirements of the climate.; Tee is 
Obtaining an effect, or a desired appearances; 

- The results of an architectural decorations; — ele 
Construction.: «- Halls must, resist, the stresses ‘benct ae 
to erush or overturn them;.the former are most, frequently v 
ical and act by pressure,: the latter are lateral, acting Dall 
thrusts or by flexure.; Lateral stresses may be noubral igedey 
if- a wall receives. from both sides thrusts from thet 
vaults,: when equilibrium occurs,: and. the wall supports 0 
vertical stresses (Fig.; 114).: reais ie 

Scientific study of construction will later: enable you to — 
find these stresses; caleulations are very simple in. most, — 
cases,: but: are very hecessary,: for nothing is more dangerous 
than to trust to routine or to determine thicknesses by gues 
as one is very bold or timid,: he errs by lack or. org sbi Sa 
thickness,: producing danger in the first, ease. and useless” x 
pense in the second.: Perhaps in regard to the thiekaneniell 
walls the architect. has the greatest, duty of ona 
ligation of an honest man amd practician.: 

But at present,: without entering into details of the ont 
lation of stresses acting on walls,: it, will suffice to den 


duce Fenerai principles of proportions.. 4 
Generally, an internal wall is in practical equilibrium; 


external wall of an edifice is never in absolute equilibria v 


Sra 


ih etek 0 tedy ‘bavat ‘dtod tO, aeeeatte favedal Mice pied 
at bates af/gen? aeonear de fa9iavey Jaa indonaye ac bo 
niga hone tad ibas Sresetees srvom ed blaude eifenw lenied 
ce nea doedotg gould pata ai aozsev tedsonk. ye ietre den 
r yaa iion keotedoi as sel ,ode'adwad plage we? 
j dete tena. at FEvqpeonso ida sedaerh gattienos 10 
Bin hie , > ‘ebaddode don @iivev tbo 
iaegueen pidetagetio ts oo seus otis dink gas ai 
ids Ree Te Lect» .aronks ‘me's Gotten adenoe edd gat 


“hg vous: wowed? ifaw tehtencs os yrseeeoen osfé zi Jt 
p ROnL. “enamide nigdsoo veer); coftourseaoo one eae 
pioiad ated? .,satdosia Sots sat ort Ath} ce sons 
BP esi sacidiitag sdghbysect O& sads seol od gon 

b dh ncktowrseaco Siec (to Meiv.to dice oa%) movl 
at edd at. fen rors. eos loysanide tt «essed ed bioox 
xa itd. a efieto sasnele yteatiq odd exe allan 
é 'S sien ania Splice Jans tqadhive, aivdé bas ebet 


menevods ~nwobalie bae aroob te saaiuenc 
tad wow foere> bien ag hg dab Pe. YRoNedEe 
ile yronennes gaum 1 any Us log seekito ni 


ee Hoddod. oF god cwaek anus en. oi Se ie 
oft ‘a0dd Jadd Anidavoo dnodsinu jesosseponcn ¥¢ 


dun eds qdibexil aexeoaigtty eves elish duiaG. 


fag ddctived yan tetd yells actekvitb ¢lamtsc ut. 


Seow paebuab daenauseo e elo god os seed: 
weaon set lien ade. ersieshiae enlk yenuido 


od goiieedt exolsibade of gablono® lenisixe od, 


ene *, 
ay Be sints mitopiwink Ch. mort yaoisees, exoto Fie iS 


rin 


ip Gemgoed ful -.oc creck 2B TD, (AOWEE 03.8 tease 
be isou0> at Piseedoon ai 9h yevaiog edd.yd. na 
= chet a bee etted te eeu af asioisd to emote 
sieges. Hi modesto (sootpod enh, aeotdebtey toa 
eevee Jos tieq4 eliow bavatoud 10} ah 

iM edt tedd wreooe wifese gf. bag ge lost ttib ei 
. a 20 Seosent begugew, Antes? Bovstrus ties 
Adnodieords wenndotiy, ev tazcox boy 


ai nf 7 x a 
o pomemet nt fitioaes 
Ritu ban) Ae as 0# 9 aa si 


goon ) Beast Asirvd Owe isdt aoondod .eat Oyen 


“y- 


-ekfer Lees gintaneg, 4 


124 
having laterel stresses on both faces, that cannot, be tie sa 
and unsymmetrical vertical stresses.) Then in orinodp1 6): ena 
ternal walls should be more resistant and thicker for the sam 
materials.) Another reason is that. they protect. the ~aiTiootE| 
from cold, heat,: etc. Yet. an internal wall may require an eat 
or sometimes Sreater thiekness,: if it, must. resist, bic throne 
of vaults not. abuttede: Ph ws 
In the interior must bse distinguished between walls: support, 
ing the construction,: -- floors,: foofs,: tec.,: -~ and those ner 
ly simple division walls, that may be light, pare 
it, is also necessary to consider walls,: that, without suppor ! 
ing the construction,: must, contain chiauney flues or hot, air 
ducts.: (Fig.; 119).: As good practice, their thickness should — 
not. be less than 20 ins.;light partitions are generally 3.2 i 
From the point. of view of pure construction,: ib, certainly 4 
would be better.if chimney flues were not, in the walls. The 
walls are the primary element. of the stability of our: buildé” 
ings, and it .is evident that a flue that, intersects them fron 
base to top is a permanent danger,: whatever care be taken. A 
chimney flue endangers the wall far more than the much large! 
openings of doors and windows,: above which thm wall recovers. 
its solidity.: The old method of chimney flues aie 
wall was then preferable.; But. we have to count too much on % 
economy of the site to permit ourselves that: Luxury,, espeeis 
in ecities.: In any case,: 1 must point out all dengers from ¢ 
ney flues in the external walls. of buildings; they are ott 
used,: yet, the flue runs from top to bottom of walls that, 
be homosgeneous,: without. counting that those flues are expo : 
to external cooling in conditions injurious un 
Brick walls have thicknesses fixed by the number of bricks 
in the cross section, from 4.33 ins.) for a single row; then 
oceur. 8.66,: 23.00,. 17.52 ins.,: ete.: But, because of the space 
occupied by the points, it, is necessary to count, 9.45, 14.47 
19.0: ins. between the two. brick faces (according to the dime 
sions of bricks in use at, Paris and a great. part. of Brance,e 
cept variations due to,local custom in nanufectarg.: 4 
As for isolated walls,: perfect construction of a long » wa, 
is difficult, ané it easily occurs thatthe wal acneeni ed 
their surfaces being warped instead 2 rensiad 
void excessive thickness throughout, it is often necessary | 


combine these walls with buttresses,: abr Coon actual con “i 


itr ¥ e “> Weald st 
el 5 ti a 1¢ i vy wa ( 
ely ee ee ee foal ih; 4 

' ‘ 


’ 
silk each O15 4. y athe ae), wi lew hetoee 

Pa agebocsss:t sabagetoty giiaes ers: op 
. meds MOVES Ste entol [armfomPsiiois: sede eos 
9 ealged: te. eral s bos aiiew. unin be oe 4a, e0a718'! 
“ABO TS favetal: jecah, od shia eno:ao: bexcons BEd 
j vente sie bos - end Gis te esondokid ShetZ ariiip 
bi Gat tseatetopbletvo vo shient ‘gteetio opal 
a THcse fettetriidtin Liaw a at fh AGlE hee) x98 
mi bassyediad Isnietve Adis Llew os ef &-yeieatto 
P id sehen e027 dose Mo od dot yaw eoedkt) ese: 
eq iret? sesenextsyd axe i +fdoeupany. ehieyv. tot 
rot. apa. Paved: iiede ew tediavooa aevdh meds eens 
Baa | h amead af ebam edoyd ly tees 
wees. aon ak xy adie deri? Ph av ye textLo 
Vid ‘sailew Yo eaenteidd edt wened LIKE Sliage Asem 
ye gas’ Sis govt. wae toedorg ad ef, oxnapetidora Ye 
pa gao mae. -Pateclone eid. % aiowtte ineineraponh yl 
Teaneaee Gaetan oc lent odes) ali etemone dG Cen 
S 46500 moat? wealoo eds: teshy teed nyo 4 


BRat Looe TO RWiGeod eee Tague, os dhnoag 
wacehs Sonetsh eact been emole e*iatauce 
1 m7 Fowsds ip iag bes: feokgoid andd was il 
‘ytos Ane: soinedxe out “ed doenad etds dost uke dud. 

| Eire. Bae jnedagda rey ot ‘geile tga s[hloo) 40 38en8 ay 
. Tot. Bebrgistel: a% Sid x Bib One \erse yoived veits yt 
De isoin tn sonnet dobm «sidteod eae 73K] adg Ad tO eo 


oneal actin asds tage andiioos snednoecd saow:, be 


anne fi ayawld -.ovols Redivie yo. doed covt gat 


Vi 


ve ait 


ase’ Mails OWT AC TRE GABE) ox teOi des Gerla’, s, ~c 


fate, Be seksidnes 


. aes ovantsthnoe. esi 
| woe se ae dral 


Eigse ct bette, 08 0 


wlfie Matted aa G ie Miata! tal Se “a7. ay’ o/s 4 u.?, 7 Oe a 


Laeiteds ,Omee oid evewis e46 edsex anid: 


wet Piot sot} doliteedosd, ji ay esa reertd, 
As Laide Reps 260 om ite Bias, edd Pre 
nO seewoo sp ¥o iad es bai, ‘nodeeritbee ang 


of bao Ge Boto. (liv Ivbae, eceo: eins woge, cyew 
ee ee bas. (Ott. pit exkh ods .jorteis4d tego ‘ser -.. 


dean rah oe Ham se¥isoeSch to Afted yateead wadto ets | 
ati b aeanie, ok aedhinidantuid yxabnol hum, as. 


db Nea ein Oa 
195 a 
nected walls (Fis,: 117; A‘, A are buttresses).; These buttresi 
es are really projecting intermediate quoins;: we shall later 
see what architectural forms are siven then.: tah: a 
ferrace or retaining walls and those of basins or reservoir 
are exposed on one side to great lateral pressures: They rea 
quire great thickness at the base,: and are always built with” 
large offsets inside or outside, ordinarily with strons bath 
ter (Fig.; 118); A is a wall with internel batter and external 
offsets; B is a wall with external batter and internal off- 
sets). These may both be on each face; finally, these retain« 
ins walls frequently have buttresses. Their pyramidal appear- 
ance them gives security; we shall later see how recesses may 
usefully be made in then,; : AOR ae 
Climate.) -— At. first sight,: it would not seem that celi- | 
mate should influence the thickness of walis.; Yet. a shacherhiis « 
of archjtecture is to protect, man from the dangerous or mere 
ly incanvenient effects of the enclosing atmosphere evaubieal 
nal phenomena.: In tropical countries,*one ee 
from heat,: near the poles from cold; whether fron heat, or. col 
the means are always the same, shelter by a structure thick — 
enough to suppress heating or cooling surfaces.) Temperate 
countries alome need less defence against external bemperae — 
ture, and thus tropical and polar structures are much’ alikes: 
But. in faet, this cannot, be.: The exterior not, only affords — 
us heat. or cold,: but also light,: abundant and even blinding — 
in the South, ware and dim in high tatitades:; Shea 
~- or in the extreme South -- much larger windows are’ requ: 
ed,, most important cooling surfaces, which alone suffice to. 
break the equilibrium. Protection from cold is also by cloth 
ing, from heat by shelter alone.; Always in hot, countries } me 
snemy ~~ the torrid sun -» has been opposed by thick walls w 
with few openings,: with an arrangement placing in shady court 
the ventilation and lighting of the house.: Oriental plans al 
ways show this ease,: and I will cite as examples the Arab s 
ures near Palermo,:the Ziza(Fig.119). and the Cuba (Figs: 120) 
or a house at Cairo (Fis.: 121).: The walls in these sditiongl 
are often hastily built. of séheut dee. materials,: crude bri 
and mud mortar,: but thickness is always sought, and in’ the 
coubtries is the primary condition of the habitation. me 
Appearance of Walls.: -- Beyond the requirements of con= 
struction and never less,: you can be guided in determining tl 


ioe. 
thickness of walls by Ma ioTR Thing of ie Atarniai or character, 


et 


Ate SR le hee aa r few Beka do a 

ah pai aa ftie’ faeadio ta | to ‘sebiedddaeswo 9 Re 

pane eliew xotdy 40 Tipped AH) yd ourse | 

tad oe: td mobail to Yalq bal heokte wepioe tidots 

a vanen “Gntieweg sie seen? stawiteeqater Letreny 

edd: va betgete RE Cunevgory of aedwiesenmt st ses | 

eoeunt fodetves editor bitode totdw dnd) (pemsieos —. 

fot anon ebactieh eatexgor sdt nedw betaneirexe 

Sopa evens olttee cane ne Wage W aid to) SnbLedi 

apended. Shine Slarone dads wrearnrte d sid etyene 

fae Bi ‘Velien Te, na tvarocoet etd Owe Be ened? «ees 

ae anoksenpes™ (aigdbedtacad aa te eainesks 

pad sexo igs: % vidfenes Hesweet Likwa eabtodd idan 

KARE QCS "oO natsatoneds seisou: jean yedvleayd be ‘ 

oa i pqeettiae te | te wréde (bhreys. ods Voor tie niaw 

ote Anvors and wi We x6 oi heavens oc) was soe? ede 

Aaotesna Lane ett 4o% evods foo Diyed? thie iS hat San: 

| AO Mae Og Boitnedia “vot! bei fed evened 1 

fMeaysave ni needs: Che’ Jetie  eipone ads 

one in@ QULILE RS BtaeII9 Total fy To ‘ao? 

| ahalateii be cig sowol a yd bolsisn 

Ty wRebiows: 24 avents .p Igaite 

es os edd ao Mods Beweeh * elgmexd, to® 

esta ¥tove Suueta ens 90 Lien edt eel 2rd at 

eeu to) gadd o8 otters t4+ ie pew bne ebteat 

go, Btivae eas wd ben invades ppendorid etixarae even 

as aaa” SA A udeento p42 To cotdoes ‘edt. ‘to 

ete ¢ bed aginorg wisv Lagto ju ‘ened 

. ace 5° pon lg Wy adibeat: base’ sreia #¢ svods: T1 

fer’ Maw ebenss is PAtee St penn log ‘behekne ; 

ye Bis, Bathbhe:. enn ioe behets Beet) Be id tations Lote 4 

Be Seti eevitoes cern fhy 30 edep ito > eeesd afars | 

ht eng L ein RST Pet Hida de eek xvee8 vab 

RO 01 sex te Boe tes eta coor shih) Bi Roig hrs Cor : 

| iss ibd we bas dae bo digon edd AehnabLiv 9.4 

aa8 > Edi no ehiiseey de, (Cesk Behe); eile qed | 

aaa entavuga os ae spf ne goats. See Foers. 78 . 
“ans bla lehlg e e So abusiiinn de 


i 


uLingoeecer Yon' paw Hiversh bh 


eo 


: 126 ie 
A thick wall with deep openings for doorways and windows,: 
ouses theidea of richness and monumental effect.: Krobyokere 
struck by the beauty of thick walls eharacterizins oowerful 
architecture,: affordins play of shadow and kight,: with none 
unenyal perspectives.: These are powerful means of effeet,: 
legitimate when the programme is adapbed to the monumental ap. 
pearance,: but. which should not, be lavished unese ae 
exasserated when the programme demands modesty; the tact an 
feelings of the artist must settle these delicate qusehae seen 
ensure the harmony,: that should exist. between the effecta: oft 
the thickness and the decoration of walls.’ ap os. 
Results of an Architectural Decoration. -« In’ neeenentall 
architecture a wall is: often sensibly thicker than is demand- 
ed. by either construction,: decoration or appearance,: like cel 
tain walls of the ground story at Versailles,: the Louvre,: ete 
The fact can be proved to exist in the ground story or ab, the 
base of an edifice; look above for its explanation.; 2 xia 
TI have ealled your attention to the character of stability 
that, shouls exist and appear in every edifice. The oroject= | 
ion of plinth or offsets existing on an upper story must. be 
carried by a lower story,: as otherwise overhanis oceur, which 
should always be avoided,’ Wa BP 

For example,: assume then on the second story préjeoteab esa 
in Fis. 122,; The wall of the ground story will be vertical 
inside,: and with reference to that: of the second waite 
have an extra thickness determined by the entire projection 
of the section of the offsets A,: Aj. a projection exaggerate: 
here but often very pronounced.: Ee ee 
If above a plane ground story you place a second story. w. 
engaged columns,: the extra thickness: will comprise the” not 
projection of these engaged eolumns,: addins the section of 
their: bases,: offsets or olinths; such is the case of the co 
des Beaux Arts at Paris (Fis.: 123),. with ibs profile in he 
127 and plan in %ig.: 128,:the Palace of Justice on the pa. 
ilion of the court, of honor and on the facade on Rue Saint 
Chapelle (Fis,: 124),. at, Versailles on the facade of the th 
tre of the Palace on Rue des Reservoirs (Fis.; 125), cand a ti 
multitude of other monunents.: These combinations may vary © 
Sreatly and nob. necessarily assume the use of the orders; th 
at, the Palace of dustice on Quai de 1' Horloge,: the facade o 
which above an entirely plane ground story rises a second 


* a a Lad wy) A Li os. 8 6D) a ah ey ee re ~ oe PONS be, —. er 
: L t é 3 : ; P . : : CS aN 
a : \ TS Ser aah : my iM Pa te) ei 
’ yy z " . 


PD acct shecoss Mamngeud sty Yioge 
HOY ,sstuste Pak baorey Biye ROG 
NG dada Waldaus ooh ie eee! heeds” ieund 
cogs Pe eat 0 wily aD Pore levers yve's 
; Bey. se a  eereiesal Yo She asl 
se abi te fey: rsh a nat Lisidenonen BiGd ton? 
i Se dw ewaatped id sasvouga®: WAIaeepetTk ood 
; ane ene Aeite. Lee bexit yiecini hel ‘ed 1s 
| ss me) | See beOe kh ot y phe 
eate an? 4: sets": Metts ths sedia eit aget 
~ Stan: Wises NGhe fe 407 Sentsedo ed fed piasd 
PAE tnodrers na seks poneHiAy Co Se tdad) dom abide! 
Paiacicasanon. ei eonetecque eit hae aol copes ges 
Beeeet shit at 46 banald> awe ede @Picantverg et Phone 
Be, istsons Ab Ee dnepeto oH? sbuistoode Fi Hakd 
gta heideronces) en sony rt Gui snob Lido bohoaws 
r DD IFES ef enedey pePiibe Shei To elias 


ey: okcaehacibaeteaa ait mele sane 


wae 


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Pebe ioe s peneaphe ciigernets you will aay take: i 
count, these cei of Wise iseombiats ween you. arranliy 


lon and by. hatching: 

From this demonstration must, be retained an essential rul 
too frequently. forgotten by besginners,: which is that, a plat 
can be definitely fixed only after the study of thee 
si the eres 


Bad ish wad wi renounce: them;- an over iein is, seu 
econstruction,. and its: appearance isn nonsensicalss Asst 
orofile orevinusiW shown,: placed as in Fig. 129,. and 
find ei Bhogk Temp ah presented. in conn ae ees 


Sabine abs chip REEL appear in enh propo: 
the diagonal to the side of the square, and for the 
C » Cy. you will have an angle D - D of the facades} 3 
suffice to protect. you from overhangs, which are a 
should not be confounded with corbellings (Fig,; 130, 
frankly desirable and hence susceptible of perfeetl 
mate study.: ay % 


ii V gihiais ANC Y yee 
| Hy wallpicoey fox deaecthad,' Bai Me 


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estes tat ieee! Lente sotieromeh pad toh ehh 
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tio, Pia, al, no) ie tad. TESORO Bay ‘ag tani saery 
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(28 ai fe 2 
CHAPTER IV.. WALLS; CONPINOED.: 2 
Character and Decoration of Wallse, = = =| 
SUMMARY.: -» Character of walls chiefly consists: in thea 
construction.} -- Character of materials.: -- Plinths and. subey 
tructures,.: ~- Sunk joints and bosses.; +» Ansle and. intermedi- 
ate gquoins.; == Belts,: bands and. cornices,: nt ta Aa 


I. have explained to you the theory. of walls in their vari- 
ous combinations. But when this wall must, play an impobtant — 
and artistic part in your composition,: what. will be its char 
acter? This will primarily be that impressed on it by the ~ 
mode of construction selected.) According to the needs of: cons 
struction and also to the impression to be oroduced,: your: wal 
will be of cut, stone,: of mixed materials,: or again be. covers. 
by. a facing of marie,. stucco or paintins.; : 

The antique wall of stone or marble is the grand architect- 
ure of the nude;. the wall at. Pompeii. with its stucco and 
paintings is refined elegance.: The Tuscan wall was: previous]: 
mentioned and is the seorn of artifices; the wall of our Pane 
theon is solemnity. I might so farther but. only desire ee 
show you the variety of imoressions the artist can produce, 

ith this element,. of the wall. eel 

Leaving these monumental conceptions,: you will see the wal. 
of small or mixed materials employed by oreference for ubilt- 
tarian programmes; bricks,: especially if combined with sto 
bringing’ sayety of color to our facades,: as om the buildings: 
of the National Library,: Rue Vivienne (Fis.: 151); ort 
appearance is also due to the mode of construction,: like thi 

grand walls of old Prison Mazas,:so identical with the chars 
acter of the prosramme,. and that. would certainly have been 
less expressive, had their construction been different. a 

As for. the decoration of walls,: it is infinite and often 
borrows: the means from the elements to be studied later,: ess 
pecially the orders.: I. cannot. now speak of the tccott 
based on the conception of the wall itself.: Yet the. word — 
oration is: proper here,: for in all hisher. art, / it. is: Mine 
cere expression of the construction itself.: 

The surface of the wall will be plane or designed with 
jections. In the first case,i the beauty of the masonry wild 


as est ban | 
o eae OP ie ea) thw ‘sae pete ¥ (fa toe ane 


i few edt nO BacldooLorg-eds SOY e4 .ctreq 
ss ‘ede od Teilune gq adhonate | ehtitexs eter 
noitomisenos efdial ~~ .eieatid eas de527 
AG ey bie Se Susadsiis ssvaciy s etgase! Ri leateol 
y da o od 3 ULlatoggee ih eexiopet vet? tide2? “sbvods 
a otdees ait He ,Jdavetaer eeel af catitebauot ‘aid to 

te deo efe ede: ‘gonek Yenodea tha Ta shsost 8 déeencd bio 

aesnxots ‘ite seeds heewsed aotdienats s “Slew ele) ta’ bad 
Beer cag Theale, Baad “aitghhi¢ ed) "to aaa ed tliat aidt 
oF re 2 rads waubiny Sexc08 sed yfaa nae sidaiia elt 
a. Gren to ‘edoold esisl) to ed [Uiw eaavod atile 
sha “thadses AG EARLOE (s$fexey to sé¢dnng’ tea fieme 
P ylienenss | eset re Yo eéernoe Larevse Ors e2iaeky 
sr ton qe a2. Sot Gis HONS SYenio ose batded gu iieo 
pend ddeened bathnedxe Bdeta” Léa Joe daoiw bebxao% 
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he escorxote lavstee PO recent iw’ eas exe badio sd of 
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a ‘ety domed ms to tet ede ot nedto  .condtol® to 
Berede’ BAT sode (deh? G2 Yo Weak edd 26. amdelo® Yo 
ieee fo ent t ihe 6d¢ So ead ta Babioot sit arewtas 
2% anindds yifesterh ehteob edt fae caad haotss 
lant cated wat de oven td Shavers edd coxt esata ti 
ped yl ‘ehatbivor of} wehoorte avtedey of Berdds 
Hf jidercnod: fytiiueed B20) $28: voy nadw dat as 
deh aide yinsots oid te deonls épatd feor atrol ren’. 


Aer 


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pith Sis 


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/buama edie dovsenet bald aedt om ybute ating nt 
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: ons ‘See te. dave’ “gnkok # ae atot ‘dase 0 
Miva ean) 90s «. Hest et nO» Metros £4 of ‘etao 
Bp te gry nike 8 Agtteast deicaiet 


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kad ot eveivene! (8 g%exdid eng os 


129 
especially. decorate the wall,:as well as the contrast value 
of great, nude spaces between the projecting forns of adjacent. 
parts., As for the projections on the wall itself,: we share 
here examine elements peculiar to the wall.: aes gt 

First. the Plinths.: -- In the construction of the wall” 
logically occurs a greater thickness at, the foundation than 
above.’ Stabil “ty requires it,: especially if fhe construction © 
of the foundation is less resistant,: as with rubble or érit- . 
stone beneath a facade of cut, stone.’ Hence the element of the 
base of the wall,: a transition between these two thicknesses.) 
This is the function of the plinth,: . 

The plinth can only be a course thicker than the wall,: and 
this course will be of large blocks of hard stone with the = 
smallest number of vertical joiny¥s.: On certain antique mone 
uments. are several courses of plinths,: generally three,  re= | 
ceedings behind each other.:; Such are the steps,: not to be con= | 
founded with actual steps, extending beneath the columns of 
the Parthenon,: You may see such plinths with less Ses big or, 
at the Library 5. Genevieve in Paris.: i. 

Most. frequently the upper part of the: plinth terminates in 
some mouldings; it sometimes becomes a true substructure with 
rich profiles,: such as you see on Palace Giraud (Fis.; 152). 
and the Cancellaria et Rome,: by which is inspired the less 
rich substructure of the Palace of our School of Fine Arts,; 
To be cited are the plinths of several churches of Venice: 
notably Church S Zacharia (Fis. 133), those of the palaces 
of Florence, often in the form of a bench (Fis.: 134)); those 
of Bologna, of the Arch of the Star, etc. The character is” 
always the footing or base of the edifice on the ground, a 
strong base,: and the design sradually attains refinement es 
it rises from the ground.; Always et the bottom is @ plain 
course to receive shocks, the mouldings only beginning above © 
it,: for. when you see on a beautiful monument, ‘like the Louvre; 
delicate mouldings almost, at the ground,: this is Mey ors be- yi 
cause the monument. has been partly buried.: : ak 

In this sfudy we then find regesses and bowueee: These tio 
terms express almost, the same thing,: but, mot. quite so.’ a 

A sunk joint. is a joint. sunk after the execution of the fa- 
cade, horizontal or vertical,: but: must always express the | 
jointing itself. 


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ie ond He Gndhneced ylno dooqavy aldd ak) gpesnedos 
| res aot dave end Fo. tnewebanise od). 40% Gh ybeoshore 
pak .fou 40 eeduger aedtedw ,kctiaiot edd woltoe itis 
to, ; edd wus bre fagoos oF Tino boopak 2k dirbot 
ik Bt ops? $a8 goat Saidoelotq esose 6 aioaedds ent 
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etl tr ede nO-sebect (hen es .bostat so ,qaua, ells, 
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| figs & cals ah exedw KORE eta) ‘eyysod 


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Bie: Be: oN OO 

It. is impossible in principle uniess the face has suffi- 
cient projection for the wall to still votes 96 ee 
of the sunk joint. the thickness and projection required by © | 
the design of the edifice.; For the cs do of the joint, becom 
the face. of the construction.: eis a 
The sunk joint, may be of rectansular ecaties ae on the | a 
ground story of the School of Fine Arts,: or rounded as ath ad 
the Mint.-; In the last example. only the horizonyal joints. <8 3 
accented, in this respect only depending on the effect to | 
oproduced.: As for the arrangement, of the sunk. inte oe 
will follow the jointing,: whether regular or not.; The sunk 4 
joint, is indeed only to. accent, and show the jointing. ae 
The boss: is a stone projecting from the face like quoins,: 
to be treated later.) The word boss is used rather than sunk ~ 
joint to express the idea of projection of the stone, rather 
than that of sinkins the joint, and particularly when any dee 
oration emphasizes this idea of projection,; , | ce 
In principle, the boss is a stone prepared and me vith a 
this projection already made; its face determined by the: 4 
cutting at the joints.: a 
I. have spoken of the very energetic bosses of Puscan ali ; 

2 tradition of Etruscan antigquity.: An analogous character i 
found in the bosses of the entrance pavilion to the oval 
of Fontainebleau called"Baptistery of Louis XII" (Pig.: 155); 
the stone employed is hard gritstone,: allowing nothing but ~ 
rusticated and rude cuttins,: which is the appearances of th se 
bosses. I will also indicate an inspiration in the bosses” om 
of the Ministry of Agriculbure,: Rue de VYarenne.). 7 yee a 
But most commonly,: bosses: are coursed., Frequently acabieln 2 
projecting courses,: sometimes with rounded edges,.as at the — 
Luxemburs,. or the boss is entirely cylindrical, as: may be 
seen on various parts of the Louvre,: Rue de Rivoli,: or next 
the Guay,: or indeed as nail heads.: On the contrary, a 
base is often richly moulded,: like those on the building 
the gallery of Apollo next, the garden of the Infanta at. tual 
Louvre (Fig.: 136),: where is also a contrast of the stancallll 
with the projecting marble bands.) . in 
Finally,: there are numerous examples of decorated beseauil 
thus vermiculated bosses,: very common and a singular imit: : 
tion of the destructive effects of saltpetre and frost; mo 


(emIO' TL eb eeods “o> Aver seee) 
t fi sled add? OE nexidsos |B eves, oy. dokiw to 
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celebrated of all are those of the Louvre alons the con 
(Fis.: 137),. or those of Philibert. de 1'Orme at. the Euilerics, 
of which you have a specimen in the court, of our: Sehool ne} xt 
the Quay (Fig. 138); both have an exquisite delicacy end cha: 
ming invention. “ 

In the architecture of fountains, stalactites are frequent - 
ly seen imitated. Such are the bosses of the: fone era of: the 
Luxemburse: | nuk > <a 

But it, must be said that bosses decorated by sceulptures,: 7) 
casings or inlays,: are charming only by exception,; Bosses 
arouse a different. idea; not. that. richness is excluded,: for © 
on the contraby their appearance is rich; but primarily they 
express strensth and enersy.: Bosses are employed to strengths 
en and show the jointins,: to accent construction in stone; 
to the logical and resular jointing of the stone correspond — 
the regular bosses,: while alternation is only a caprice,: 

You will further see on the same edifice a variety of boss: 
ese’ On Palace Strozzi,.on Palace Cancellaria (Fig.: 26),: the © 
bosses are refined and assume the lightmess: of the upper sto- 
ries, and in a certain measure,: it is the same at the Luxem= 
burs.: : 2 Oo 

From the boss to the auoins is an entirely natural transi= 
tion; the quoins being a series of stones with bosses,: whose 
purpose is to mark the junction of two fabidcor ste ea 
strongly accented, where the wall is more heavily Lomnenys 

There are angle and intermediate quoins.: : em 

Angle quoins mark the junction of two facade wallis,: and th 
lensths of the shortest stones: should at least. equal the th 
ness of the wall -- a little more if the angle stones have | 
entrant, angles inside (Pis.: 159).-: ee 

The toothing necessary for the const rnetin aust always ¢ 
pear in the decoration of the. bosses; such is nwa 
position of the magnificent, motives of angle quoins of Ital- 
ian architecture,: the finest, example of which is oe 
Palace Farnese (Fig.: 140).: You find again this motive at’ 
Louvre in the facades on the side next. Rue de Rivolis) 

Then vertical projecting quoins,: whose sides are limited b 
two vertical lines without visible toothing,: are in contradi 
tion to the construction.: Yet there are fine examples of the 
certainly of an inferior art,: It, is the same esas guoins— 1a 


% ae Peon 
| , , i hae 
We 4 ’ aye ( ee 


ia iy Sg a ail er hy aha 2h A ‘a bb ie, oe me ee ae Gomes eR ah Uc 
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t> A a) oo a te @ - ; ' d , oY f 
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cata’ sueted. to lanods ike sahaep-a batazaies 
tntsien qedaemesivpes edi of : dobinst se ghey Olas 
Headstone Cay mottod oF gad: BOA Bak teoidcos 
7 o yhanote deadnody: BAG AO witha l 
3 etd nasty aetrove gaere IIb at avidgnet Abels) aeows % 
+ odak bets leuet z eons at Lisadt’ iin fy sade t vo . 
H Ms, tottichass eon fe 9 i to ates and ep toma tao be 
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“tied <Sttiot, 85 Lalhaod rot Satbnedee yi Aged? 
a pease TSnoL Ih seineve tenqe ods ni Aiidedw's Ed 
d eebatdoetorwy evawies satony eis woacesa eat AF 
a ty $087. edd Yluweopert, 34500 Jatol end, So aoe 
. Megat hee | Ls feeokPosPorg dieiio s Geived sanks) 
nt ad arsovoy or 1 vehi: akex ont 
Dok srae ey & ‘san iore Roy 
He ArOe eoivese laseves ad sos 41 
pasat 89a tadnoaisod ya aoivesaqea’: 
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ae doe shiors wopitag Soleeivilenp eds setged ease 

ae oe oto Rema yong 


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> paki re dod Dewtet Tle. penton: bad loom 
Pia Sn Pay Bi accion: to speed ws 

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iat 5 oxo asdTo wh, A eh dseaire 3 suathivos 

cee eet} bude aged s. vd batidoesa Gidnens 

rant aiedioan cet meee), eateyeteoaiad to) os 

5 Abana snginG oO oe youaind « gpoldiw bet eu 

toi ei a¢los 19 baad oie gusty edt 


yao) (ane 1, hdc ahatale ma Panui 
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4 pas al ag nae a 
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¥ eu? , Is at ‘ tik ve ie bie 3 7 Nag fag 


152 
wider than the possible width of a wall,: for example the 
quoins at least 9.8 ft. wide above the piers Co 
of the Carrousel. | iy 

Returning to quoins like those of Palace Farnese,: I shall 
call your attention to the requirements; retaining the same ~ 
vertical line from top to bottom for the line limiting the ~ 
lengths of the shortest stones,: consequently a difference bes 
tween their lensths in different. stories when the facade has” 
offsets; the wall itself is thus translated into the eleva- | 
tion;. such is the desisn of Palace Pandolfini at Florence (Fi 
141),: whose architect was Raphael himself;-- the toothing 
frankly extending for bondins the joints,:. their projections — 
diminishing in the upper stories if lower stones are employed 
in the masonry,: the quoins always. projecting,: but, the bot. — 
tom of the joint, beins frequently the face of the bieiscdeinis 
times havins a slight. projection.: , 

The same principle naturally governs the intermediate lin 
of guoins.: 

if there be several stories,: you. will neturally mark thea 
separation by horizontal lines.: These are belts or bands,;: 
that; in principle indicate: the levels of the floors.: Yet. they 
are also frequently placed below thw windows, for which they, 
serve as continuous sills.; Such is the case of the magnifies 
cent Palace Strozzi| at. Florence (Figs.; 142).: not: a 

I cannot, too strongly advise the study of: this Pelace;. 1 
know nothing in modern architecture,: that. presents in the : 
same desree the qualities of antique architecture; weeny: 
truth,: nothing more nor. less, | 

Note especially the proportion of the belts and of tguee up 
per cornice.: I have spoken of cornices that crown the facad 
also of belts that are nothing more than a oro ject fil eal 4 
moulded course,: well marked but. not, competing with the | corni 
in height. or projection. i 

The belt, often has a general rectangular section with so 
mouldings beneath it. [t is often ornamented,: also being | 
aquently preceded by a decorated frieze; such are the belts 
of Palace Farnese (Fig.: 143),: another masterpiece,: or decor 
ted without a frieze, as on Palace Pandolfini (Fis.- 144),2 9 

fhe variety of bands or belts is infinite, and I cannot. pr 
sent a volume of citations,i only saying that in mediaeval 


ia ane 


pet ian ey ‘is hla Dechited: aren 
dete mle Wons bie vital .CGBEQRIT) Teew yoo se 
ae Pe A iets, eeodd (BeGLAVOD OA! L’ edto 
| Fae Uiievene) — lesen dita beaeves oii 
tk 98 [Ltedie¥ to Legenda ads se ‘eat wile £ fox 
as, Botineg eidusekteaay A weret oF Prse2e80en 
bib nos sent: to’ sdtetwosy eft jentet vd ibavos 
Peay Sl davnizaves deel yd béeaer 
pa mort? wo Jaece: od even fdeile I .esekaico wodveb 


e 3%. entia® iSsronse weoels® ra: teas. wou gnrmddes 
rogers af ef key a eit koran eb oh Seon Raveod 
esl of6 tegen Ons Gd Yleied fou. dnensnoe ex idno eng 
fe. | ‘soHemtse td Sigate we Sraven edd, eh ehagory 
Bee’ eyed yklarcney (Oat (RTE Pape tesco: Leveaitey - 

do SH sertpdoos tors fis Bash) PO de sabia nt ned? pove 


ais 32 tie? ed F014 tris aes ne Hodiess 
| on din foigeowsnso af htshe heonotinen 
| a at Rot qadtrs't 04 Wiesteos, wea FT 

Py of noted vouse “ibns Yo esaoaste 
eslon | ROOTS awobniv fae: Beer saon roy 
“pag ha tah ia ree ode (pee Ror Le 
ae ,beesay need 4ody ead ebaie eri? od? 


ode eth, Thyeeite ips. gubuenos seal, Jon. soy evel 


es nS ‘pera at pee tte, MOT Fens . ‘Ghali 


aes Lie Bi at Sud): seta ce Snedet Awe wk. tee 
ce aa 


e° Bru Jooaidare To. eelgipeiry “Janeh ceeds to nox 
ve  palacnys | vols baa. palbbud erty. dovoylia kes adobdopagencs 
vena Yeuckolxoss s 84. dom Li be tts Wiad dod 


a 3 Y per ABSA 2 a a 
Nagy baa ana ve hd we del a Teh oe aeite eal ‘evad flix st 


me diet! hey ginagetg ee toF aeis bag 9A dtin gokdoen: 


eMeeth ad) Geiei ing eis aa e a e6elten os 


Od pape Dospotie tbe ail Raeda vend vit TOY getw. 


cn hx phaerd! gah Sint etiépe ta Sine? Aas enol dy 
3 ag apidons eis Hes vetdleved tovbre Erte! 


Fey nee erh: oa, et 2 


43 12% ‘send dee) 70 ehudMetged. HE Added bas MAES 


Hes a 
architecture the belt is generally quite thin,: since the cou 
forming the belt has a great. part of its height, occupied oy 
steep wash (Fig.; 145).: Water and snow are enemies of belts,: 
often like cornices; those projecting and rather Plat sheutal 
be covered with metal,—— senerally lead,-- to protect them — 
from leaks.: Thus at, the ghapel of Versailles it has been 
necessary to renew a considerable portion of the facade re= ~ 
moved by rains,: the recurrence of these accidents being pres 
vented by lead coverinss.: a 

As for cornices,: I shakl have to speak of then again in con 
nection with the orders.; For the present,: I limit, myself to © 
showing you that on Palace Suing SOUR Atee Farnese,: on the 
- Louvre next. Rue de Rivoli,: the cornice is in proportion to = 
the entire monument,: not. merely to the upper story. Its am= — 
plitude is the reward of simple treatment,; ee 
- Mediaeval cornices({Fis.' 146) generally have less import. — 
ance than in antique or Roman architecture.; The chief resson 
is the projection of the gargoyles,: which localize the rea 
tection of the wall from the fall of rainwater.) Phey pisos 
mentioned again in connection with roofs... 

I ean searcely go farther now in regard to walls;- Ge: nan 
elements of their study belong to what we have not. seen ben 
fore,: doorways and windows,: arches,: columns and pilasters,:p 
els, niches, etc.; q 

The first. stage has Shee been passed,: let ud stop & none ‘ 
to reflect. a little and also to drean,: 2 be 

Have you not been somewhat, surprised? Are these studies” Ei 
what you imagined them? They probably seem to you slightly © 
austere and dry enough. Yet, reread ail this and you will 
already,: that from all this is revealed an art, composed of 
light, and truth.: In beginnings or rather for the beginner,: 7 
art is in a latent state,: but, it. is all hose, ya 
flower and fruit are entire in the bud,: and I cannot, speak 
you of these first, principles of architecture connected with 
construction,: without, the budding and blossoming of art,: pro 
ising ardent novelties and the emotion of unknown onset 

But this art. will not be a capricious fancy,: but conscio 
It will have its laws =~ for between these laws and anarek ny 
is no middle term --« yet its laws will not, be fences,: and jus 
because you have learned,: may you do what os possible for 


es oh Tih 
“tiottielne be 
abbots. otal ae wy | aye 
vee Yiahons ous YIese peunataos | ie 
pbaadine soy ¥o tah eae’ sos ihe ee). 
oboe isers HE Fond aedwonet me 
3 40 Bedseniey cueoe® ydonawrogn? | "7M 
dadd hig. mov bertapor yea git ef wets Re 
beatae! i 


nhs Shah rele aee hip Rally tip kakoupnonehtal 


losing any part, of your heritage; = 


Remember that in every study,: the. beginnings ar 
importance. Become permeated by the fixst. princip] aS 
this is the key required for all that. Tenains to yoy te 
learned,: 3 


ss % 


Aes anak tostéacod: mae a 

& etmet eantasca ve Lobaedbeh on ed ra 
edd WO bsvintt Ath olguare. Hakone ert 
ai lol a. ao hod gaibtelae 167 cinethages: wyittels® 
i ae eres ED eed vatioira OD cep ‘sebnkileor yo. eotint, 
fbonm: seodore Sednlon » pisinemser  Talnotka ties rae iy 
| me A OO tIKe bas ‘Bobet Hogar es Mikogaiov 
f f= )sebuedtata Begnint | me sPOROVE fev0 «» 4eeidse 
| Rie ie tae! ayn | near 


Skies | | 
tiste qu FOG. if{iew bilow wn¢ 9 jets i teayy, 

2 eds en iasKs oF glegs gran peau iaegqd dgtw tisk . 
‘et iii 401 ION IKR goo To angen bas Be 
se so Yo beyansioc’ ete silae af ebss, ogatnogo LA 
ie ‘ha laano To! onan 
ptekie. on yer taae) ean Th mere to satlog Baas moe, 

aig #4: us om ad of beatvect sd *o ) begolo, t6%As 
waiesa Ao aAtook Meteor ne fome: ere ddeda 
pg eid’, won enisdy aus ie tune Ou tas 
o ¢etkt de aan wav bas) fol vores: noe 
eixqxos ed sugiia’ ded 3° erase te mere? 
fais ‘ et i Ae tiege fgeaiives bas jee! gue fe aad 
>: piles 4 ‘46 nek dousteqod edd at aA kta Ee oc oe Tet 


4 


Ps tine Geet Ol Intatl ledmontiod «yd bore Yodo 
Poa hscsbiphe ots oe st shade th io ee0 aad. at dowe 


Ne oy Agfa 


1L)) eae 


Mipisit ‘gt: toambt pel at. ave of an 
# to, {olkew Wdieas Sh Tenge toi boar ty od wi 
od. fotail bEesflonow ent ado tte gravaon’ te onseh 

sg gent soiidee divans eaatgne at KQseRe adotoada: 
ei: _; raged ta gal quake eneagt 6" 
7a pitsace ne. fave be yi dgtiv ‘tnithett ead ane) | 
uik ro ek woheorvdadgy, ae ebom- etae psensaa? 
wephos de bod ednet ant no kat deer (edaby. ones: on? 
fee | 9 bed astot. wie: eveda ‘Hokdounsence ‘eit ve 

ai 8 Wer donee tives Jo vstlaspect Yasel. 

30 becuse ea A tt ot: esese7te eupauetq Laclizey 
Saqan add, “hee aa eesti ik Pride! hie ete 


iG ns : 


ye eur ig Race ay ie yeh ag 


Bae i Vk io 
¥: 0 Ali E a Pe Nek eli +m oa a fe 


2.50. 
CHAPTER V,: OPENINGS IN WABLLS,; 


Their Construction.: 

SUMMARY,.: -- Rectangular openings,: jambs and lintels, «= 

Very ancieht, exanples,; —- Width limited by the lintel.; -- | 
Primitive expedients for enlarging them. -~ Inelinetion of 
jenbs,. corbellings.: -- The arch.; -— Different, forms of arch- 
CSel == Semicircular,: segmental,: pointed archese; == Imposts,: 
voussoirs,: keystones,: intrados and extrados.: «— Jointing of 
arches., ~~ Oval arches.; -~ Jointed platbands.; -- Relieving 
arches.) 


i ieeeeer ae) Peeae to the solid wall; now we shall study 
the wall wifh openings,: here again to examine the resourc- 
és: and means of construction.’ 

All openings made in walls are designated by the general 
name of opening.) 

From the point of view of use,: they may be simple openings | 
never closed,: or. be destined to be closed by plain or: glazed 
shutters,: such as wooden doors or sashes,: Slazing,:« etc.; That, 
has no immediate importance from the point, of view of their © 
construction,: and you can at first consider an epeninsg apart. 
from closures,: that, aight. be comprised.; | | 

fhe simplest, and earliest, opening was rectansular,: a verte 
ical interruption in the construction of a wall,: terminated: | 
or: covered by a horizontal lintel. In very remote antiquity,: 
such is the Gate of Alatri.: It is the doorway or the. common 4 
window (Fig.; 147); the sides are termed jambs,: and the membe 
coverins the openings is the lintel.: The lintel will frequent: 
ly be of wood or of steel in ordinary walls,: of stone in mon 
umental construction. The monolithic lintel being an almost 
‘absolute custom in antigue architecture, that. presents magni 
icent. examples of it.: . 


the svone lintel resting on the jambs by short ends,: loaded 
by the construction above it,: forms: bad conditions if the 


vertical pressure stresses it. by flexuree: Hence broken lintel 
are frequently seen, Amons the ancients, the courses of ston 
being set Qryiand the walls founded bn the rock itself, no 
settlement was feared,: and lintels of 16.4 to 19.7 ft, could 


' pe Aye a) s is il le ith een ol - te rs : Ce i be ot. 1% Lh a ; 
pi ies ie ack Na EY 
oa ‘ % ; ‘ : , 


ee 


Ws a: eacds ne ‘sen bales ee ay 
6 bigdteio ‘inna eds Jo sanem yd Ss8atydo es0x 
oo Po as te |  k degee th tve tf 
i > ddneoi sat dekotatb od tdguor vale’ ovat nok 
git) sdaet pid Yo noiventinnt siptie s janeem ows vd 
foo ter esiaesn Detixed etaoyuie Yo acistbke efé Fd. 40 
# eibs, add af) Sexo lgme yivaenpss? 2an tadgeve Gaol add 
| pies hege eAsnsascg &. YOF eldsvior et venta? oft 


~ 
¢ , 


, 4 
r 


Te | 


ey vieniias ed teum eere cid conte .vroehoon eval! Semel) 


(wenvoed: th pe fi bia Tis) tet aniaoco wv iaee lta; hug 


0% panes. oh hianaiag eeels “to Shas eu bicenentl aad 
: au ee gnedoerade einicns? ® nate: die 
“ algeish ae a Bi MALeCPPt sait) vesdet ots cot ed 
pian Jom Iga kook bac 

344 tbe 4 
WHEW S49. Geseton! dood sonnee eed? 
Riied2iot badolitedt aten srndvoedidors 
Loy NEA. ed veo ILide veaninego sseth niveis 

addin Bekéleotiiib edt: to aaosty ode gelquexs 
Eavutt elqute. aad” Gf Bagotsszees neds batasinoa et: 
oe; RMtoRee eareon ‘to wish is at etude at oe 
aedaa ito. aiiw guldeda abiw'e eyew of datw ane 
i. Rafaghth a yd s% tevos of Ji gatovte soi yeh 
bieds. pene ehaliledtde eViuneotse jcataia 3h 


Et Soellig gaan? 36: nodoge- grad toe Blyodad 
OST GCE ‘Uliegety Bi woe Sitegsig of yoreds boxte 
| edd ‘geokrovoosts sneot thanam onotts 


pam cr, 


| ee foas. oda at weavoon te ain? 


Ra or 
p ie ae * fy wi als! ue et 


“ ni aoe 


i. y tives $4 sings ody al 


wos ge aebiniseisen® Yd kentag at goistcn Jets of) 


.(@xmeoLS end: To Hiowhoow ed9 | 
al wurot)henatieb vious.) 3° vd, 


Fujdedritog seonia af @tot edd leietL on eved: 
di sid Packed sacvec: Wane Yo: Rak soe, 


miei! OL 28 flew 28) ,t16 se To: coingamentl 


xboor te: asd) Rs okey 
ie ee a tiaded ‘teswerg M 


OS 
Res Nis: 


Tea 


136 | 
be employed,: of very dense and homogeneous marble.) But, with — 
our mode of construction the monolithic lintel is only adapte 
ed to small openings,: giving it, 6reat. height. an@ with dense 
. stone,; It, was thus frequently used in the middle ages.: 

He shall later see how these inconveniences of the lintel 
were obviated by means of the jointed platband and the re~ 
lievins arch.: 

Men have tat sought to diminish the length of the lintel 
by two means; a slight inclination of the jambs (Fig.; 148),: 
or by the addition of supports termed consoles or corbels.: 
The last system was frequently employed in the middle ages.: 

The former is: suitable for a permanent. opening,: but. if- it, 
must, have woodwork,: since the axes must, be entirely vertical, : 
the effective opening for air and light: becomes rectangular: 
so that nothing is gained by greater width at, bottom. Also 
the frequent, use made of these openings in tombs Saarinen, ae) 
with them a funerary character.: 

As for. the latter (Fig. 149),: it, is no less obsiipacb era: ‘Por 
the woodwork of the closure, and does not. accent, the: opening 
by a freely defined forn.; It is merely an expedient.: oh 

These cannot, much inersase the width of an openings,: and if 
architecture were restricted to the lintel,: it. eonld never. 
attain great tite ae heer nay be seen in very ancient. | 
examples the traces of the difficulties with which em 
ure contended when restricted to tne *ntubie lintel.: Thus at 
segni in Etruria is a sate of coarse masonry,: Showing clearly 
the wish to make a wide opening with offsets,. and the neces: 
ity for reducing it. to cover it, by a lintel.- a 

At Arpino,: successive corbellings cause the sate to really 
have no lintel,: the form is: almost, pointed, produced by. pros 
jection of each course beyond thaty just beneath.: | 

I should not have spoken of these attempts,: had I not. dew 
Sired thereby to prepare you to properly appreciate one “of 
those magnificent discoveries,: that, are a capital fact. in th 
evolution of an art,: as well as in the advance of eivilizatd 

This discovery is the arch with the vault,: merely its @ i 
Sion-; it has already been mentioned, but I now return 7 
in greater detail.: 

Is the arch the result, of progressive attempts, the syster 
atic realization of a fact revealed by chance, or is it, a co 


ee 


saad a Sos thes i stn Re aokiqed 


dé 2aiebtn Be’ Bently nad - geetneqa: ae) ene of angla 
one beoeninteaaan ‘Ae onmE dts ted deena que 
b ARoe: oan mer: gaom ent ‘to: Bro, ees od, RIE! 
. f ‘Vewites mapenerst to: enotiusy 
sgn d bonttobas bap wen need ovad Yam tayededs 
age Sreectnhe eda. fexiiivu veds )erginesiders. 04 
met aoisonzduaoo URE, ‘ag beilega ai dona ated ant 
SSiet, sai gniaege ie aeqe of Sebnstnd) .m102 bwlry i 


“ Gave Gd ef yloxs afd Yo Holsongt da eudT gt ovo 


pars edd S$to0Gre: to aeten sasieiess. oF astenai sd 


Wetenco mothesoo eek saebveoisenso dent Yo eee 

ret } revedadn ghotéutot oliiueontos efi ot bos a0, | 
bircee jon ei dors: of? “Sexo lqae efaivetsm gd te 

agi ne ee tg oad imvitdilides ¢f¢sdea to nakdibacs 


Be scisna see at ne st mrGteh) os 


aco eat $f) gd | sii tide ds aide ap 


sagpaten ite soe qaeeagoon aka secahan 10 
one & dness1g97 hisodes nas Eo ode 20 eaam eng 
‘ fe “thors etd To dauttdd edd nad t 
ee “morne> a d¢tw sonave feuidnebt taecetbs owt 

ks to.0G, bas edd tT, zhote dads fo. me rads Cte 
eB i) Gritgdpob at estiidare end. soivose s 20 


a), 2 SS clan a8 fonexc anciesha (2. bare? 


> Elen inony, od yaseesona et th 


dl bre odd gisss: eed baer 


ree 


meats Asin os ed od meidorg 2th onussd’ 


> edd Ao beaol edd Micadsi wd. tainon Oa Beer O54) 


oe ah eae teh dita sede alc 


act. enetg Nats - ohahiy ant havin, 


pot ieose edoctfeb s ai etiftista eids Xo robdeot oh 
i x03 “bas ) atatos? erotemss. o3 heer? ida ,nokiontaa 
bog wrodagme le ne, soy. 8 ‘eiectial vine aso, 1) 
ig odé evreado, ad bd ade ifee ebiuy ses hee aot 


pote angtatnsd: e ef oh. yeoetoaad 
ran papal 20. 
ids fa }o een 
“etd 708, 


Cameeaitees nadd tedded, ad ‘bbaep it 


1387 

ception of genius due entirely to the power of thought? | 
Assume this problem to be set; with stones of limited dimen= 
Sions to span an opening ten times as wide as the stones, ant 
Suppose that ancunknown Archimedéesscouldysolvenit,: would not. 
there be seen one of the most, sublime and most fruitful in- 
ventions of human senins? 

whatever may have been,: new and undefined horizons opened 
to architecture,: that. utilized them admirably.: | 

the term arch is applied to any construction in masonry of 
curved form,: intended to span an opening in a wall or a part | 
too weak to resist. by itself the load of the construction abe 
ove it.) Thus the function of the arch is to support and to 
transfer to resistant parts of support, the stresses of the 
mass of that. construction; its: condition consists: in its arck 
ed form and in its concentric jointing,: whatever the nature 
of the materials emploued.; The arch is not. naturally in a 
condition of stable equilibrium; the pressures supported tend 
to deform it. and tp displace its points of: support; these E 
must then afford sufficient, stability, proportioned to the — 
width of the arch and the load of the supported. masonry it. J 
sustains.) The widths of the piers is the princtipal condition 
of this stability, but it. varies according to whether these | 
piers are more or less loaded,: for: it, reduces to @ question — 
of weight; it is necessary that, the stress required to displa 
the mass of the piers should represent a pressure greater 
than the thrust of the arch,: | | 

two adjacent identival arches with a common pier are in e= 
quilibrium on that pier; for the end pier or an external wall 
of a section,: the stability is doubtful (Fis.; 150).: The ver= 
ification of this stability is a delicate question of con» © 
struction,: subject to numerous factors,: and for its solution 
{ ¢an only indicate to you an elementary and empirical rule: 
Your safest guide will now be to observe the proportions’ — 
Found in numerous examples,: remembering that an excess Je ort 
dence is better than rashness.: 

It is necessary to know well,: that if the arch reserves vas 
resources, if is a dangerous means in the hands of: imprudent, 
or unskilful men,: But here again the principle of the appear= 
ence of stability will preserve you from serious faults,: i 
for the appearance of a construction to command confidence, 


gil bas PER aL Sole. eit ae gt 
c ea me) 
. — Was... snvapee pe oe géiieoen vidi 
at wokirn00. “ads “At Sxinhooes ot HStotauess enone 
cE H6Oe Sd Yeeinte Yo srtot ‘sgovenag geixe ate dT 
: e oft “(ter “hi%) ta lvortobinge O89 al dsens< 
fv! Gone AB speatssnt aishy I8GtTROV, Gacdw sedi. 
2) ed? yoteig end seguded eonaserk sft gheebxe 
si usAs r8dse1y enibst avin: core Lavoe, owt te beni0 i 
Ph “Anted eetines tod s gerete eda seowted eonstqib 
a ae neveCumr Batt! 20 
we ‘dane Bhtubog as: 10 esaldtogosg nT 
| Got ~Weoltenidnos eens 
boats) Hots Eataaite ‘tees ban ppenipntny ea 


> 


~eentaa trae ads obits Ht werd 


tuo Rexsese adie a Bs Mm dove dsoaal of? :.3 
Y Sate te! edd "to aaegs 
“peek “pRit) hows feuedeLivps adT 748 
ana edd de esudance Md bitp @ aac owd eid 
Tiicawrot avototiaes ‘avottay eis |tent 
tev “f4ede yd bekwesxe ef dots eis etads 
isos odd ned t Hedin eexgneo Adinv dots 
ihe ts. Gaxk «at YLiakos gas fas vitawt? 
{be gntog 20 4eluotto dare gotweatod 
Teaaas> - yenoda untisaporg 4 at gaoqnt sit 
a ee Sst i OE weatt: hi A) wei g edd, eedeniats 3 
inie edd to tnigatot sid. bic in iat Zenoss enbew edd 
Pees bia \,29 20 is02 aid bemed et ehte idee Ys tTihoeevcy 
ame eiciaiv ant * ORG Tey S2 ead er & <togeuey 
8 print ede hosted 2% Hdesned hese es exioravey edd 
nic org) ibbo eyevla ef eitoseaoy to seduces ail 
‘ole ton hg ows er bevisonos od yen Batsniat edt. ,enode 
; iniegs edd erect sobeades he “Adin saddic ef fi 
ena ryeeos tine, * Taotebri ted owd aearded bee 
eee: ‘PDO. yy ¥00. ee ‘eohe1sKs edd bas teak 
ee allen yen sacde ystorss 4 wns ep iecisol 
Diet ti bas exergy e4d ‘wo figten eit. Ste Heed Bas, 
st tend ‘ee ren! pers deY Lyttenton foe. hed Teibes. 
wk ¥3 | es, aduol 'Rdtgubexc ‘to 
SUN ec Lananes Hustla ot 
ra st 2 ee: ett. 


| 148 
its security must, be evident,and your eyes will gradually 
_ become accustomed to recognize if this condition is satisfied, 

There exist, numerous forms of arches; the most natural and — 
purest is the semicircular (Pig.: 151).: The segmental arch is | 
that, whose vertical piers intersect an are>. whose diameter 
exceeds the distance between the piers.) The pointed arch is 

formed of two equal arcs with radius sreater than half the 
distance between the piers, their centres being in the aig 
of its imposts.: 

The proportions of the pointed arch are variable, rhs, form 

three combinations.: a 

1., Depressed and nearly circular arch (Fig,: 152). be a cen 
tres inside the springings.; : 

2.) The lancet arch (Fis.; 153) with centres outside the 
span of the arch,: 

4-) The equilateral arch (Fis.: 154),. intermediate. between 
the two. forms,: with centres at. the sprinsings,; ee 

There are various capricious forms, like the stilted arch,: 
where the arch is extended by short. verticals; the lanceolate 
arch with centres higher than the sprinsings.: 

Finally and especially in Arab architecture is found the - 
horseshoe arch,: circular or pointed.: 

fhe. impost, is: a projecting stone,. generally moulded, that. | 
terminates the pier (A - A,: Fiss.: 151,. 155),: voussoirs being 
the wedge stones forming the jointing of the. arches; The first. 
voussoir at each side is named the springer,: and the middle © 
voussoir B is the keystone.; The visible cylindrical face of a 
the voussoirs as seen beneath is termed the intrados,: i 

The number of voussoirs is always odd,: producing the key- a 
stone. fhe jointing may be conceived in two principal WAYS;: 
it is either with an extrados,: i.e.,: the. voussoirs ars compri 
sed between two cylindrical surfaces,: the intrados being the 
inner and the extrados the outer one.: This jointins is very 4 
logical,: as the masonry aboewe may slip somewhat on the. arch 
and cast all its weight on the piers,: and the voussoirs. with 
radial beds act normally.: Yet it, always has the inconvenience 
of producing acute angles in the masonry of the re which 4 
are always bad.: : : ae 

The other node of iki represented Po nea 14, by 


fie 5 ag OMem of \elelxe esiispsr Satuprh esl -.iinw ede 
sant In jarit as xitanbobttve aod 2 inioy 
oe > eevee l. ylscotot tian ed was ssioaescy 
telah. 8t408 ghafosa-ni oattodh in Woy eqeites 
583 ‘62. .eelsan, tnaxiness ddiw dno 6%& Beagds ars 
fat “iat eS | ‘WE-2e...peets0o Ietaonttont bie Natosewsy 
chp tie loa 6d bivods baz avatoiv gf gnumexnbt 
es eoitns inertness ads de ssexd ayewls Feowls 
gearot reds . eeutignos pele sedore to. wedaee ant. 
see et site: ete Bods ssemtol a12° to genetaey ylar 
| ‘Mfeyoulentizey Ao Letoosivod gaisd gina veger 
ney Seluentetise i.gadors bestize, eardnee Lao 
38 RagiveyceedT sagekeaiaga.cdy coos wadgin gous 


—, di 


‘ys — o 


af e | Ped yoeds Catan vod fel tin voy nosey Rae 
. ts 9k done gatoou! ston aad, ot? sadnn VEE qidkan’ 
7 Daa! ison DenToOTe) s £4 twegge goo Sivore 


= 


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soe! ad ee to to to none 20. boapamen dove {sve edd 
imap Yo.tednun: gdiijedieg ni setdned dviv bas «9 
eae Pfhoods -,estaitor nied i dbhinvn tae. tdedod savia 
ee19080, Piro Ve Aede: ho sd averke [lin asvino 
ci Te dtu nt bis yadacte eff faottveaiys ylitesrs 
tise a (bas +o tssavady Hiveehtads eta gqside gel 
ey tetrer:- Bee): ekaerd SATO Oo heey ota 


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Be Neg ti 

ae VNTR 

pak is ae? ie Se i" fi . =] 


Bey 


ns ae 
_ o¢« 


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| ste giv, dee bab Oct Git) aguegedeee eat 
Rae ees, oh + polite iate ‘ad? eves vee teas atde 
ny a ms sh ot esd buedtela ody to ‘Retantot ett, | 
te lie peedent acberat ghy- da \selgas ednoe patxiny 
t sued sHote sd! 30 bt ‘effe te! aoizosr. 


ee ne . 
ea is bbe sree: 4) a9 bs 3 (neces: ee 
: { ot Rae | a. “~ fe ~ 
MR CR yf, 11 ik Lm Pr ie is Me: é Pe a 
* K ve ’ \ eA, ; rf u K. 4 f . 
, nek ea! Ae i as, 
i i ks | > 
L Ln ht ee ee 


end of scott as MW Bhi sntot gag ) 


ir benisvoh ak oodiogareton thets: “fire. nomees eget 
Peso. eine atone taltécviotuee ead 22 shee ihe 


ae iviw Jeotngeudeh bated ,eaqgiife add. 


Bee miter adored. Cay oes on \beaddala hs 

on Ang nwode ‘yeed ced fetnkl o ingitonan |) 

A, RLRO beat. ge bi vots one tices eipagd), 
“sat sed) omtroea AaoL sia tecoe %, 2 Sen! AD, 


O) Me Se Poe 
a any 

; es, eas). 
i 


149 Se 
the jointing of the voussoirs to the lines of the. courses of — 
the wall.: Its drawing requires trials to. make the vertical 
joints bond sufficiently,: and that the contact plenes of bheg 
voussoirs may be sufficiently larse,.: | | 

Perhaps you will find in ancient, works a jointing in which 
the stones are cut, with reentrent angles,: so as to form both © 
voussoirs and horizonvyal courses,:as in Fis.; 156.: This ar- 
rangement, is vicious and should be rejected,: for the stones 
almost, always break at, the reentrant. ansgle..: 

The series of arches also comprises other forms,: that are 
only variants of the former;: thus are: elliptical abches,: the 
major axis being horizonval or vertical,: oval arches with sev 
eral centres,: stilted arches,: semicircular arches with cen» 
tres higher than the: sprinsings.; These various arches are 
less common,: and their construction is governed by the same 
principles as the semicircular. arch.) Only note that when for 
any reason you are led to. employ then,: they must. be drawn 
frankly different. from the semicircular. arch.. An oval arch 
should not appear as a deformed semicircular arch. As for | 
the ellipse,: beins geometrical with a given height and width, 
but. one ellipse is possible for them.: It is not. the same for 
the oval arch,: composed of ares of cireles tangent to each ot 
er. and with centres in pairs,: the number of combinations forp 
given heésht, and width being infinite,: though the number of © 
curves will always be odd,: with 3,:5,/ or 9 centres, and nec= 
essarily symmetrical.: The greater the number of centres, 
less abrupt, are changes in curvature,: and a sufficient, number 
are used to prevent, breaks (Fig.; 157).: 

Finally,. connected with the theory of the arch is the joint 
ed platband.: fie return here to the rectangular openings; the ® 
monolithic lintel has been shown and reasons given, why it 
breaks easily and should be used only for small openings,: im 
our mode of construction. Assume that, the voussoirs of a se6- 
mental arch be prolonged to the horizontal line connecting 
the springings (Fig.; 158),: and then with all the stability of 
this arch you have the platband.; | a 

The jointing of the platband has the inconvenience of re= 
quiring acute angles at. the intrados instead of the normal @ 
rection of the joints of the arch.: Therefore this jointing 
has been reproached as a sort of dissuise,: applying to a 


iin: as issn ‘ei A Wladiste end 
; dond? bag: besousua eg Jeon at ssid ).a8 
Sobek yolars Od hedtide ylivsatiessg ‘ned svsed 
aki ff ei \anabbeqte edemisitsi-yliespe todzons 
Bé ¢d berevos’ @t gniseoo ielwonayosy Ar, (C8l 4 tt) 
see ht Yo ‘diag Beaodxe> ‘Sie weew a vlinebive ., baedtsia 
et ats mort eivaecig edd. vodad ai evods sisaa nx 11 
“Soberpade Heonded hailltt edé vino vixeo.od evad Ili 
@ 9d Yon foes widT<.dows sSaiveties end Yo: actstict 
gaeg yino si snd) bedatog weve to Isdnomase «sa! 
ag ek baol 42 edimsngad (si dotdw of Lfaw Biloe 
| eldiasoqut ed Oisow sr ceud? wgesidd ett deteet 
we zinsaera tiseit eitne git aasing*, vobalw 16x 
Ffiabatnegs ovece ayawie don ors. esxows jatvetie® 
8 e@teig evode hansi{g yisneupe1t ots yods {2% 
et a1ok oF fiswoedt to tdbkiow od? ontats teast3 
o gonae' on fac¢..bbe of eeeioas easoe Jl 
ee rces qilapios. if seeilan ),fors Saiveil 
esiedsetord aor ai mesa semisonoe ste 
to jecnsednt evitor juosstiw eedors’ 


witaue irk Baud edd fo¥snos Yan s6e0h Ao2807 
ON eee {sso net ads vol {iso -estogs C14 
ve, ol gid? ;.tacete tThedd vised edd; .er8 “Yads 
oth eae pone fLin basdéels edd. ,enoksifess bas 
alae Lio! ~se@eseh ied dove hetateg sit fas 
ete ieins: Ao died 1s sefote eed. yileni® 
gr 0 co @¥6 ‘Sigtie isn seshi~jenecesing x0 siddet 


= me 
ohn a 's orb iost ms ag esi eld ot chalet tadrom) 


ce ae 
. Lv sh ‘ a 
Nt sai 4 


eR 


‘netoidt cis alates, sation sid¢ bas ‘meta 7 


watt 


140 
straight. form the elements of curved construction. ?rue, i 
the platband is merely an expedient,: but one so necessary Po 
‘that. it, must. be accepted,: and its theoretical opponents 
have been practically obliged to employ. it.; 

Another: equally legitimate expedient is the relieving arch 
(Fis.: 199).; A rectangular opening is covered by a lintel or 
platbank: evideutay a weak and exposed part, of the structure, 
If an arch above it takes the pressure from the lintel, that, 
will have to carry only the filling between itself and the 
intrados of the relievins arch,.; This arch may be semicircu- 
lar,: segmental or even pointed,: but is only possible if the 
solid wall to which it transmits its: load is: sufficient. to 
resist its thrust.) Thus it would be impossible above a cor 
ner window,: unless the angle itself presents sufficient widt! 
Relieving. arches are not: always above openings.) Thus’ in gen» 
eral they are frequently placed above piers or walls for 
transferrins the weight: of the wall to more resistant’ partse} 

It seems useless to add,: that no reason exists for a re- 
lieving arch, unless it, actually relieves something,: but: ther 
are sometimes seen in your. projects,: and even in executed 
works,: arches without. motive intersectins a wall solid below 
and above.} That. is not only nonsense,: but it may injure: the — 
solidity of the wall.; An example of faults committed when 
reason does not. control the design. 

All arches call for the general ramark,: that, the flatter 
they are, the greater their thrust,.; Thus for the same span 
and conditions,: the platband will exert the Sreatest thrust ~ 
and the pointed arch the leasta,) ie ; 

Finally,: when arches are built. of small naterials,: bricks;: 
rubble or sritstone,: these materials: are not of voussoir 
shape, and the mortar joints are thicker wedses,: so that. ta 
mortar determines the resistance of the: arch.; 


THR Er OTT seROoO-o coon sal rete 
get ae Pies ABE IUNSO eU0i819 
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ond 30 ee atia . Ae BUewiood isotedme ete Lente ial 
pee fenre sat has adeoqgul u Vygawseod fades 
Be me teheldonuadancs eueline | peueba iw asiogagice® 
> daand ~(anctavoied bare schssdey. fed. ee “aad 
oy 7 ent aay » “i et Ra bites fa-exist 


& % ' el 


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pa ak hoquet®R edainego jenodain pas eexock +254 
Gas. Gseoei tog ~stalscgetsig elqate yo be twus 
Hs a hus, osnioads ssidet ri soissside th ALET::. 

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eae rletedncmle Afove od cidaasenribdr 2% 
sSelemexs Yan 


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wEaego Me ai YSwisod ‘To baiz SLHT 1G haZ 
ie es te z ‘ebisees 4 SL Guts 
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Raiods 409 ¥Lee domgenood lenredat ing {eatedxe 
7 Sxscteds t0% gala. dud» tevel: age Lieiv an ze 
fe iSenunes eased, Hekdqeoxs —~eetwedad. or al 
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¥ EE escciiesesten.> ao@) ésedidois odd yd aesods 
iavewsoo 243 Yo <cduet sd3 eva A.A snokissooeb 
e SE. Qiew dsecteseivas. ck socb-« nsig a al 

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. ge nous paar en? Adinvexigontad ‘piasouperd gave 

hay Oe an Lesh Mikel ‘eyews00b 2ehs gebised- fawobsix 
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rages en epee one ee eck tran. 


nd pasia: af: taeesag as %o% ‘secede... 


14. 
CHAPTER VI.; APPLICATION TO DOORS;: WINDOWS;: AND 
VARIOUS OPENINGS... 

SUMMARY,: =» Isolated openings (doors and windows).; -- 
Internal and external doorways. -- With one or two leaves,} -= 
Arched doorways.-} -~ Imposts and internal arched soffits.} == 
Rectangular windows,: antigue construction.; =~ Sills and mull- 
ions.: -— Balustrades and balconies.) -~ Great openings and 
large Slazings.; 


In the preceding have been considered openings without, reg 
ard to their uses; From this: point of view,: they may be sgroup- 
ed in two fanilies;. isolated openings in a continuous wall, : 
i.€.-,( doors and windows; openings srouped in a series and sep 
arated by simple piers,: i-6s,: porticoss: 

This distinction is rather: absolute,: and you will Brigette 
ly see doorways borrow the architecture of porticos,: yet it. 
is indispensable to avoid nonsense,: of which there are too. Fi 
many examples.: | 

Doorways.) -— Doorways are internal or external,: closed ot 
open.) For the present in regard to open doorways,: 1 have noth 
ing to add to what has been said on the construction of open= 
ings.; This kind of doorway is an opening formed in a wall,:a 
Simple passage.’ 

For doorways serving to close an edifice, a portion of a 
building,: a room or hall,: a distinction is to be made betweer 
external and internal doors,: not only for their architecture, 
as we shall see later,: but, also for their arrangement.) 

-In an interior,: exceptins where monumental architecture is_ 
adopted for a vestibule,: colonnade or gallery in stone,: and 
forms an actual facade arransement,: the woodwork of the doors 
is: placed in the plane. of one face of the wall (Fig.; 160), 
chosen by the architect. from considerations of convenience of 
decoration.: Aj. A are the jambs. of the doorway. ) 

In a plan a door in an internal wall is simply represented 
by a rectansular. opening P in the projection of the wall.; . 

It, is not, the same for an external doorway.) Such doorways © 
must freguently harmonize with the arrangement, of adjacent. 
Windows; besides these doorways are generally larger and 
would interfere too much with the rooms if opening at.the int 
surface of the wall,: so that, they are usually arranged =-— as 
we shall see for windows -~ in the following manner (Fig,; 16 


a ena en? selgda Ideta ay a 
s tdow aa Ae, achioos dane tate ot) eas Fs 


ditaae iad es ia bitss yes We secuhy. bs: VRD 
Moecab ibe rvts: NO 4oob ead OP Tee" We Lerte My drat 


ao 


AN 


¢ Bo gotsagil Bis: ‘evorqnd od (GL eae 3: ey: ‘berniar 
BR 62 ooh Kehoow, ‘Ode “46 Geteo!l ent Cotte od es wa 
a EAA he dota tae’ ent ‘to costae) add). Jenit eG 
~ Lite Cities) Peeeee alow baa ete dey dine wee) 


Bete oss ak ri Wi feumedxe hete ¢ soidtoulenenw. 


} 


Mae 


oe Od Soofediniie « pyen bigede 
pee oth : eh EGE RIT? Vcow 
evex va enue ae TH5 Fo ales ewan b 


his jeorbnet ce dnoadin BOURAROM BOAT 
a ; CeO Ealdg 
Hi cas Sfenedw, baths TREN os eB ET Begs 1 

Dive <5 ahdalae ad BE ato lsd. tienehie eo: ke lins ) 


“ig veo ¢ eiiaangek edviah out vote oved Cee 


9th. PvE Pie iam Dida wticd Hodses 


" r 
a fe: 


ia 


ed “see ais Od Bayoebs, Mew avo? add. mak 


Po Heke ane EOD, beds 


Re sy a fe eaeendd ery by even cane 
a 

wee open m- VF poet 
Eg, @ ke: je dasa 


Sons ‘ELiaevostt Ori fe a. eh Sab Ra OY Shelvede. 


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afeuterxs: Risrwoet batedke: dow ec vooh sd Ye Dire 


sedi rit : 809 go) ae ad Native ni , 


cert Pee. , een) CLS evenet 


es Hieneioerts on ead even Fihe. 
ae \ one ae e Sic a eee hoa Oped Se! ai, 
seovaeh, 


este tiedw APAaeedeT eae Ly Be ; diva 
ore site eset. ad os. ein, dud i 


pegniagey ‘eebdd hee! teat 
BKboon Pond coun bia i 


sey 
tne jamb comprises only part of the thickness of the wall, 
and the woodwork is fixed in a rebate;. inside is: the: splay 
into. which the door opens.; This splay is: oblique,: that the 
door way open beyond a right, ansle.: The same arrangement, is 
at, the top,: making the same section of the wall as in plan.: 
According to the thickness of the walls,. these conditions 
may be varied; in very thick walls the architect, may form a 
sort. of shelter before the door by giving Sreater depth to 
the jamb (H,. Fig.: 162);. but, more frequently the splay is en« | 
larged (F,.: Fig.; 162). to improve the lighting of the room,: and 
so as to allow the leaves of the wooden door to fully ee 
against, the surface of the splay.: 
The jamb,: rebate and splay extend to the sill,: which iis usu 
ally made of a single hard stone,: sometimes: of marble.: It. fre 
quently forms a step externally; it; is indeed well that the 
Sill of a door be not; exposed tovrain externally, and it, 
should have a slight, slope to remove the water falling on the 
door: (Fig.; 163).; | | 
A veka is: often preceded by several external steps,: wher 
there should always be a landins before the sill.« forsaf the. 
sbeps: commence without a landins,: this would be dangerous in 
Soins: oute: ae oe 
The sill is: not, always raised,. when it, is necessary for: thi 
landing or: sidewalk before it to have a sufficient. we igh Z 
remove the water,; {) Fe 9 
Doors have one or two. leaves.; Naturally the prineipal doors 
Will have two leaves;: an arrangenent, permitting ordinary use 
of one leaf,: and the use of a double width by openings” wae, 
leaves.; 7 
Arched Doorways.; ~~ Most, doors are ribiaaged ee thie: bed 
ing the form best, adapted to the woodwork,: and rectangular — 
doors are alone practicable when height is linited.; 
Arched doorways are without inconvenience if remaining ope 
but. when to be closed,: various: difficulties occur,: The leave 
must have their hinges in a vertical axis of rotation (Pige; 
- 164),. and these fittings can only be applied on the rectanst 
lar. portion of the woodwork; the entire arched portion remai 
ing separate.) Further, with a splay,: the parts a,b,¢,om the 
arched portion will describe horizontal circular ares and wi 
strike against, the splay,: so that the door cannot be entires 


4 ped ads. Ao Jad d word ankeeh Ith ayot 8: yo ius 
Joes 4a oi bade fiiv voy daidw i teen, e2edd te 
monet: Pads: sbinotheoxs vino: ho era 
alg | chats bid Fo 
on cadebeebed OR ae wre ntaneaues hetong: wud? 

i. meds Bidoisec woenexd so fiw soltdnt dacs: yt BAned 
wert (e006 sags ton. ro Here fh, 
‘moeaend odd od. iff ond gor’ tnineago anole ood 
job "07 eldisetahe ¢fio ¢i e nbieer: 2 Lid ui sved hed 


7 a) ead 


fan Fy ni 


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ed bosques ed Jon’ Jetm eno God) wesg thhandod ag 
"telat \ jaar to soot & Hoactid reeg od neh 
| Bveerree wor eB aand oldetenhbetd: adm 
ieweoon) Bal 
fon Beas 
EF ‘pRARTOOD 18: 
| Stabe donk ‘¢ dpom droeiquis ads ail 
ie resol Oi, sneed eIouNO. vOt 146 Whos i994 
Berend Teinsayaen vaso. to eolne 
2 2e phot sctobiaacs Yo Demrevoy vodiivemostai 
sedidors: Ons *jebsee te eA eebaoe? Ao edness 
aera 36 stosset ataxnthityed VOW AG bel lor 
by ean Sivases Cele LS BAB LS SQ Ga), Od ted aedd. ob 
Reovort pbde iene fA 1. G0)  chauiealiy pels agate tae ation te 
eyes ; widowed 


svaost ‘to. Pla. sins vaca qlsae! sa icvawobutt 


‘ ny wey Gi 


ty t 
ba 


 Sabiprco8S etsned 


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eS | 4 ; 7 ‘MaRS: . abc 

taahe 296 pc ear a Wad ss eter ons 

inn: gs exit, es pilew edd. pda dtncae: fon” 
Tho e WoT 08 9 ‘ ae Honea aabeed a seventy 


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pbagiew (ck aRitlese Tee. ¥osd Lovieg: 


they nelngsioines ’ 


}, A cy 3 ee ee “ 
en pak a “~ Sa 


i ‘bys Soe ee! ere fémieixe odf .exohain 


oe ee ba a edge Hani oantans oe beat euaog 


aS 


ea te sonetsscca Bud beeretesasa sinied od dapd ede 


‘i woe A . 
i 143 
entirely opened.; To remedy this inconvenience have been con- 
ceived back soffits(Pis.: 165),. warped surfaces Sivins the 
splay a form differins frou that, of the jamb.: Several sorts — 
of these exist,: which you will study in stereotomy.: Ingeni- © 
ous means, but, only expedients,: that. also redaceh ee 
of the arch.; Ol 
Thus arched doorways are actually reduced to rectansular 
doors by combination with a transom,: which is the name of a 
semicircular: part,: Slazed or not,. that. does not, open,: the 
door alone opening from the sill to the transom bar: (Figs.: 16¢ 
Bvidently this means is only admissible for doors sufficient- 
ly high to permit, passage and the appearance of free movement 
beneath the transom bar.: Indeed it, is not. sufficient for one 
to actually pass,: but. one must, not. be tempted to bend in or= 
der to pass through a door of sufficient. me is 
more disagreeable than a low doorway.: ‘ 
The doorway with segmental arch,: if the splay be isp eecti) | 
arranged, / does not. sensibly differ in use from the. rectangu- 
lar doorway.; el. pee ie. 
Thus the simplest,: most, rweugont and convenient; doorway i 
rectansular.: Few others cceur: in interiors,: except in sacl 
es, vestibules of other: monumental halls,: whose architecture 
is: sometimes governed by considerations of symmetry with the 
elements of facades.; As a facade,: the architect may be cons | 
trolled by very legitimate reasons of variety or character,;) 
He then has to appreciate in what, measure he must. subordinat, 
practical considerations to an ee expression requibeig 
by hin,.: hs +s 
Windows.; ~— Nearly everything said of doorways applies & 
windows. The external doorway is: a sort. of window extending 
to. the sground.: ee © 
The window also has: its jamb,: rebate and splay.; It, remains 
to see the construction of the part of the wall between the: 
window and the floor.: First. take the ordinary window in i eo 
house,’ ie 
The water: falling on a window funs off rapidly;; it” should 
not penetrate thw wall,: and the sill should be of a single 
stone,: which should project. to throw off the water from ‘i 
wall;.it. has’ a wash for: the same purpose,: and is: sectioned © 
like a cornice with or without, mouldings beneath.; But this — 


5 ’ 
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4 se ‘ 
et. , 


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bthetie despliia Re bicokeiiite ats 3o nehtnee: tyes 
ee Bee oat. Pe | ivowboaw ea fie e mane, re teqi ho pags 
 Baitien ex: dunt: Were wh9.4 irc ie op thoy whey 
Son ess odd vation sxe dis od de eee 84 beatin Fs 
re conectssce Une: begets: Nae he ove kh: E-ehoksoekowy 
iF 40 mohics {a4 eds tot arabe tics. 08 73 het ptt: as) 
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bE, ace betoutinnos | Cit renpent: ww seabnte eget ois 
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aa igs to ni bivo med ads OE owt? \soenen reer 
- is obitretors dwodedy, {Tas 2 ee ee aA BU CURT WETS 
nord: iu Vd hegeatons, ek Wobsitw SUR NEER: sees ec: made: Feo 
: ea x. 2 ol Bendeutecmnue Vidas So BROT 3 
} f BORE 6s het cn o ai wobats 
z Use tao. fon veoh wobatwoedd. cont? 
a 06 BE TeSGesitesordGgsn ov aldenivet 
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gdet of bee drat etd. To eee rte bid eds “tak 
iOwaR Soon nd etait ‘nao lt On? Gk Baatiue ava lowe 
: etieasn': Bi ekelia” baried af too fh aa tite 
hat Paws “ehh ti ee. RINweeE4 Qe. Weds eh woberwe 
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yoad. Big nd per. 1fiwiger: Omane Kiara eA ye” 
bowers AukTL. cat ek ee ‘ied sy: Bi oasae rhage eau 
BMT cere ita: edd Aguomdy tne Hote TAS Hom ahem 
$i, nodose is seach e ats es: neiewodaim eld 
| a ane taal) 4 ak io; ats sah shih) ti ta heey 


: raHi aie bien wa tock bias Hag 
Os piicsaheasn, tes ee eons \\ees een 
ne pede. nokgtr cl? Ciseadd: Bloc wed + 
| slosh phiany: ne: tree ate paterles o) 


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1 ep "aldara u 
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144 3 | ey 
stone is easily broken and should not, extend into the jambs, / 
whose unequal pressure might. break it{Fig.: 167).; 

This sill is someVimes: merely a part of a continuous: sas 
extending below the piers{Fis.: 168).- 

fhe section of the sill should be arranged to prevent en= — 
trance of water: beneath the woodwork,: as in Fig.: 169.; | | 

Yet in antique architecture,: just as we find the monolithic 
lintel,: we see the sill extending into the piers and without, 
projection,: I have already stated why settlement was less to 
be feared by the ancients;- as for the projection of the sill, 
this was less necessary in the climate of Greece or Italy.; 
Antique windows were frequently constructed as in this: exam- 
ole (Fig.: 170); sill A,: jambs JJ,: lintel L,. the piers being 
of stone at, P or rubble at. B.: It. is important, to know this? — 
arrangement,: for we find there the origin of the decoration — 
of windows.) For us,: the sill without, projection is logical if 
but, two cases;. when the window is protected by strong projec 
tions, as in a story surmounted by a balcony,:or: when the 
window is under the portico.: 

Since the window does not. extend inside to ‘ie floprsviih, 
desirable to approach as: near as possible to the outside ‘tom 
enjoy the air and view.fThus the solid masonry beneath has — 
only the thickness: of the jamb and the rebate,: while the a 
splays extend to the floor.; Thts thinner masonry between the 
sill and floor is termed "allege"(in French),.: The section of 
&@ window is then represented as in Fig.pA7i ae the — 
allese,: sill,: lintel,: jamb,: rebate and splay.?7 

By this arrangement, you. will see in old books,: ile nindow 
are indicated in plan as in Fig.; 172.: A ground plan was: the 
made and therefore cut through the allesge,.; To better indicat 

the windows on the plan,: a horizontal sectéon is taken above 
the sill (Fis.: 172).; tons Li 
If the window be very high above the raiaoie) ties aliece dl is 
omitted,: being too hish for its: small thickness,: and being — 
useless,: since it is not, necessary to look out,.; The wall is 
then solid beneath the window,: but, Senerally to increase the 
admission of lisht,: the inside of the sill is splayed athe 
section as in Fig, 173,. this splay being cut, in the sill or 
formed of other: materials.: Its: ew clos is: mors. or: less acoord: 
ing to the special needs,.; peat 


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Ordinary windows generally have two leaves,: single leaves 
being only used for small openings for lighting closets, 
storerooms,: etc.; ( Casement, Windows),: beh: 
‘Yet the art of constructins wooden sashes with two leaves 
that. shut. tight, is relatively recent,.: The shutter: was alone: 
made for: a loné time,.a sort, of small glazed door.: These 
were mullion windows,: i,e.,: a, large window was: divided into. » 
two or more compartments separated by stone aullions or bars. 
These were actually small windows reduced to dimensions pera’ 
mittins a sash in a single leaf.; Fig.: 174 shows: a mullion | 
window from the House. of Consuls at. Chartres.; \ 
In our time has frequently been reproduced this arrangement 
charming exaaples of which exist.; But it must be recognized — 
that a very sraceful window of this kind is incinvenient and: 
lights but little;. and while by taste or fashion it is often 
constructed today,: it, is very common for the inhabitants of 
old houses,: more careful for their comfort, than the appear= © 
ance of their facade,.to remove the mullions and bars in orde 
to enjoy the more asreeable sash in two leaves. 4 
Arched Windows.’ «= hat has beensaid of arched doorways. 
apolies equally to windows.; Here also the rectangular window 
is simplest,: most; loSical and convenient.; But. the architect 
will appreciate in what. cases various artistic exigencies: 
will require of him the use of the semicircular or segmental 
Window, 6tc.° 
Balustrades and Balconies.,; -— Te have seen that the wines 


hence the sill and the "allese".: When the sill has the actua 
height, of about, 5.28 ft.: from the floor,.the window is thus 
comolete.; But. frequently far better air anf light, as well as 
for considerations of the facede,: this height is not. always” 
Siven to the sill., Yet somethings should. prevent a fall and 
permbt, leaning against it.; Sometimes a simple straight bar ~ 
extends between the jambs,: or a balustrade or balcony is: *H 
provided.; ; 

A baleony is any projection in stone or metal forming the 
sill,: not. only inside the form but, projecting frou it. The ™ 
actual balcony is limited to each window.,:like those rising 
above each doorway. of the monuments on Place de la Concorde 
at, Paris (Fis.; 175); grand balconies extend before several 


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146 


windows and pierse) ve 
Generally. the balcony is so arranged that. one may remain 
there, and thus the window becomes a casement, window,: or acts 
ual glazed door; srand balconies cannot. be otherwise conceiv- 
ed.; Yet the casement windows do not. extend to the floor it- 
self,. the balconies beins usually raised one stsp above it.: 
When the balcony railings are of metal, wrought or cast, iron, 
they are capable of onfinite combinations;. when of stone,: 
they bear: the name of balustrade.; There may be balustrades of 
very varied composition,: but the ordinary and the most. monu= — 
mental result. from the use of balusters: : 
Balusters are small round or squars supports,: close enough 
to ensure safety of persons, supporting a rail of stone or 
marble,: and resting on a plinth.: The entire height: of plinth, 
balusters and rail should be about. E.Wil ft.,: or sometimes a 
little more,: but, would be dangerous if below that heisht.: 
it is easily understood that. these balusters -- or any oth- 
er. stone filling, unless exaggerated ~« forms: a rather precas 
rious and easily overthrown enclosures; Thus it, should be on» 
ly one panel.; The stability of a balustrade is in the <a 
als, that, at proper distances connect, the plinth and rail 
(Figs., 176),: whose distances should be small enough,: that. th 
rail may be in a single piece from one pedestal bo another ” 


= 


without, joints above the balusters,.; 

The plan of a window balustrade wfil then be as in Figs 1 
The projection of the balustrade will then be supported ei 1er 
by a belt, crownins the thicker wall of the oe 
Fig. 178,: or a balcony on consoles more or less projecting.) 
The space between the pedestals and occupied by balusters sh 
should be the same as that. of the window,: or a little more, 
but, never less.: *¢ 

As for Srand balconies,: whose projection attains sreat.. 
portions,: the appearance of security as well as ‘commen 
requires them to be borne by strons consoles.: But these con- 
soles must only increase the stability,. which is first en= _ 
sured by incorporating the balcony with the facade wall. AW 


. balcony is nothing but. a course of the wall orojecting more 


than the others (Fisg.; 179).; Before openings the balcony stol 
must, be monolithic and extending a little into the: jambs,: so 

Ag 
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147 
tinpins,: which may likewise be opposed by iron anchors.; 
When the balustrade of a grand balcony is of stone; it: is. 
evidently less fixed than for a small baloony,« nob eee 
nected with the front. wall at. each side of a window.; Then 
are required supports: or: pedestals above strons consoles; bes 
tween the pedestals are blocks,: and between these are balus= 
trades or other: panels.; Here is a theoretical arrangement. of 
a balustrade for a grand balcony (Fig.: 180),: showing the ped- 
estals,: blocks,: balusters,: larse consoles and modillions.; ~~ 
The rail and plinth extend around the pedestals, but the — 
top of the rail should always be smooth; ornaments in relief, 
vases,: spheres,: etc.,: are sometimes placed on the pedestals,: 
but. this: is very inconvenient, and opposed to the purpose of 
the balcony.; Such decorations,: if used,: should be reserved 
for the end pedestals.: An example shows the combination of 
all these conditions,: the doorway of Palace Sciarra at Rone : 
with a balcony above it{Fig.; 181).: oom 
Grand Windows.: -- Besides ordinary windows,: the composi= 
tion of an edifice frequently requires sreat. onenings for a 
lisht, as at the end of a vaulted hall or a vaulted: bay.; Suc 
are the great, windows of churches,: the great rese windows, : 
the grand Slazed arches of railway stations,: waiting healls;< 
etc.: These types are extremely varied,: and are governed by 
no rule other than the judicious satisfaction of the require: 
ments.) Generally,: these openings: are at, a height, not permite: 
tind leaning aSainst, them, so that their sills do not corres: 
pond to any human need; but. since the great. Slass surfaces 
receive a sreat, quantity of water,: its removal must. be patti 
ularly foreseen; this will be: by means of pronounced slopes 
externally with projecting sill and dripe: a 
These great openings cannot; be closed by simple woodman 
but, may be in compartments: in any manner.: Such are frequent= 
ly by stone divisions,: like the great, rose windows of churel 
s,. thus obtaining panels of proper dimensions,.; But oblique 
or circular divisions,: etc.,: if perfect, for fixed Slazing ~ 
like church windows,: do not, lend themselves to the requirem ¢ 
of parts to be opened,: Hence when you compose these sreat 
openbngs,: you myst see whether they serve only for lighting 
for which fixed Slagins smffiueg: (except for external clean 
ing),: or if these openings must, also ventilate.: In the latte 


pene 3a lerosel t of. whos Sex 6s {low et 
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148 a 
case,. the divisions must be adapted to movable sashes,; and 
consequently with horizontal and vertical combinations.; It, — 
is well to make access to them as easy as: possible.: In most” 
closures of the great windows of churches the stone divisions 
forming mullions and arches are very delicate and fragile.,; © 
Thus frequently the iron armature enclosing the glass makes — 
the stonework stable and supported. It is better that the 
stone may suffice alone by the connection of properly sup © 
ported parts; the stonework then abmostsbecomes woodwork,: 3 

Amons a multitude of examples of these arransements,: I. § 
shall limit myself to placing some before you; one of the dre 
side windows of the 8.; Chapelle at Paris, or those of the ~~ 
Church of S. Pierre de Louviers: (F Fig.: 182).; In a whitelist 
ogous form of opening,: but, with notable differences in desig: 
is a window of eins ienp dee of Florence: (Fig,: 1835). Then iam 
much wider proportions in relation to the height, consequent- 
ly requiring more numerous divisions,: I cite the windows ofS 
the bays of the Hall of the Synod at, Sehs,: and the great, wiln- 
dow at the extremity of the same hall.; (Fis.; 184).: Finally, 4 
if we pass from that. to the great, rose windows,: no less va= 
ried, the rose window of Notre Dame above the ‘South vortaly: 
which you may see externally and internally ea 
that, of the 8. Chapelle of the Palace.: Cpa 'S «i . 

I could not show you these combinations vitholle, dan a 
time having you see the decoration that, they sugsested,: bein 
a little in advance in that respect; we leave this to return 
no more to what has been said.: uct, ai 


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149 

CHAPTER VII.. DECORATION OF DOORWAYS. AND WINDOWS.; — 
SUMMARY.; -— Antigue origin,: ~~ Jambs and lintel,: archi= 
trave and cars.,-— Caps; -— Antique doors: of Cafalu.j <= Caps 
with consoles, -~ Doorways with pediment, caps,: enclosed by ~ 


columns or pilasters,.} 

Decoration and character of arches.; -— Antique arches of 

Falerii and Perugia. --.Arches richly decorated.: -~ Princi= 
ples to follow.; «= Arches in Latin and Byzantine architect uri 
w. Romanesgue arches.; =- Gothic afches,} | | 

Comparison of tendencies of antigue and mediaeval arahive 
ure.; 

Decoration of arched windows.: 

Resume the rectangular openins.: Its original comet eeai 
comprised first, the lintel,: at. first supported by stones: set, 
on end that, formed the jambs,: perhaps from tradition of sin 
ple construction in wood: with posts and bean.; 2honeigeeaeall 
‘stones must. be oroperly dressed in the midst of ordinary and 
sometines: rough econstruction.: Mote the architrave (moulded ; 
band around the. openins).: : | 

But, the lintel needs more strensth and is: higher. than chell 
width of the. architrave,: its lensth extendins. beyond the 
jambs.: Thus: the ears: (Fis. 186),- 

Hence in principle,: the architrave is a flat, enclosure: wit, 
only some border mouldings; by its enclosure the ear is 7 
cented and ranges with the top of the opening.-;° 9 8a 3s a 

Such are the theoretical clemenés,: that. should not be for: 
Sotten,: even when you vary fron them.: You may see in the Set 
of Fine Arts several doorways studied with architrave and ~ 
ears aunties in absolute purity-: B 

But. rain is always an enemy.: Whether the opening be a doo! 
or window,: it, is important, to preserve it.: How? By a cap, 
as: for the wall.: There are examples of doorways where the 
cap is placed directly on the architrave;- such are the wine 
dows of the Pemple of Vesta at. Tivoli (Pig.: 187),. with a vei 
beautiful study of architrave and profiles,.: Particularly on 
of the doorways of the Temple of Diana (?) at. Cefalu (Figo 
188),: whose architecture expresses the theory just. stated; 
again another: doorway of the same monument. (Fis. 189).,; 

It is interesting to compare these examples with a pretty 

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ae a Shagsct Mi beyolague nsos seiwext td 
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Mis) jyacoled so bn iiies eds als Soak ms he +O eten 
Od So ylisore tithes Yasue disse 1 exciared’ -.beacis 
ae eeidt. sevis oels .ovad etss ‘fate. bas Khas 
eee 9 HoObdibdbs.ous Yo beivesv 
bidda to epdnetiaks ta signed. Sebi cre be {ee 
Sena Ao stigdcun Jeend, NOV Bat ora., (Sth ares 
as cd sucibsd od bibex Abvtotin.. jovani 
idigtetiendgiiv = naoksse Hae Vevyerqonh act 2 
Sst deend. qetiewiheg dnoddie a6 atin bag 2QRD 
. eee SAMO NICs JotnsH oa0..anercoKn vlexendxe 
ae eee ‘senoe pda fliw I meds, gaideom 
fees sors se fo yswioeb ahd ,~ainsdxe eff Aad _ 
i: gkisV oda te eysuxock evense. gh 88 
peacsad PRado se seg? oats We danod 


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SAI. SIPCOBS ( 


th ott oda ne wee. a — 


150: 
Renaissance doorway at Corneto,: composed in the same siete 
in a very elegant. study (Fig.: 190).- a a 
Though the rain be thrown off by the cap at. top,: it, is sti. 
injurious, for it. always falls before the. opening,: particula: 
ly if this be a doorway,: when it, falls no less on the persons 
entering or leavins.: Then it would be useful to throw the 
water laterally,: and hence the doorways were covered by: a tri 
angular. or: circular. pediment.; picaet ee 
Then I reject the criticisas: by®*certain purists in ER | 
to pediments crowning doorways or windows,: under the pertext 
that, the: pediment is the end of a roof.} Doubtless,: but, from © 
the moment. that. the use of an architectural form has: a motive 
where it, is logical and useful,:. it, escapes all critiscisn,: 
Hence,: architrave,. frieze,: cap and pediment, form a complete 
decoration of the external doorway. Beautiful examples abound 
I cite one of them,: which id the grand doorway of Church S., 
Jacopo degli. Spagnpli at, Rome (Fig.; 191).; This is mentioned — 
in preference to any other, because I know none more. beauti= 
ful.; 1. add only that in examples taken from the purest archi- 
tecture, the pediment is not found over doorways not exposed 
to rain.; Since this motive has become especially decorative — 
it has likewise been employed in interiors as on exteriors. 
It. is ussless to repeat,. that. it-is all the same for doors) 
ways or wWindows,: except the railins or balcony,: already men= | 
tioned.; Therefore I shall speak indifferently of both. 2 fie 
Architraves with ears have also given rise.to coubinations 
varied by the addition of friezes,: caps, etc-,: as on a ce 
way of an antiague Temple at Asgrisentum or another at Tivol: : 
(Fig.; 192),.0r in a very great. number of examples in nodal 
architecture,. which it, would be tedious to enumerats.; 7 
As for doorways and wondows with straight architraves,: wi 
caps and with or. without. pediments,: beautiful examples are © 
extremelv numsrous., One cannot. turn over a book a a 
meetings then,.; | will cite some... — a 
On the exterior,.: the doorway of the Pantheon at, Rome (Fis 
62),. several doorways of the Vatican,. the windows on the 
court. of Palace Spada at. Rome,. those excessively rich ro 
Gertosa at, Pevia;.in the interior,: the doorway of the li 
in the Cathedral of Siena (Fis.: 193).: 
To sSive greater monumental breadth to the motive of thea 


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151 
doorway or window,: the cap is frequently extended beyond the 
line of the architrave and then made to project more by means 
of consoles supportins its ends.; This beautiful motive is 
often falsified in the design,. and as always,;: 1 direct you to 
its origin,: and you can work with knowledge of its motive.: 

Our doorway (Fis. 194).is always covered by its lintel or 
jointed platband.; Outside that. lintel or platband,: you can 
place a console,: a high and narrow stone fixed in the wall, 
whose upper projection supports the cap after the fashion of 
a balcony,: 1.¢.,: under the cornice,; ) 

Such is the theoretical arransement,: which calls at once 
for. various remarks,: 

1.; The console must. be sufficiently far from the jamb of 
the opening to permit the construction of the lintel,: the 
more sO since in the interior the opening will be wider on ac 
count, of the splay.; 4 

2.; This: console should not extend Petow the joint. termina 

ting the jambs,. for. if prolonged to B,: the lintel would rest, 
on the small and weak block of stone without, bonding at. the 
joint.: 

3.. If it, be desired that, the upper moulding of the console © 
should be enclosed by the angle of the cap,.this cap should ~ 
extend little beyond that. angle.) If the projection 0,D,be inw) 
creased, it, must. also be increased in front,: and the Bap will® 
then have an excessive projection,or not have equal projec 
tions in front and sides, which would be a mean arrangement, | 

4.. For the same reason, it suffices for the console to be . 
crowned by a simple moulding; if you desire a richer moulding” 
of the cap,:. it. is matural far the lower: moulding to stop be-= ; 
tween the consoles.; Rant 

de In general, the opening is enclosed by an architrave,: 4 
and frequently above the consoles is another architrave.: The © 
theoretical scheme of the window is then that. of Pig.; 195,- | 
Note only that, the upoer architrave is sensibly narrower than 
the lower one.; Chae 

Must. you restrict, yourselves within absolute rules? No,: 
but; at, least. you know when and why you. depart; from them.) . 

You will further find in the beautiful exemples the obser= 
vation of the more essential principles; width of architrave,: 


wilh or without, ears; frieze often decorated,: thin and oben 


; 

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152 . 
consoles.; Study in antique archntecture the doorways of: thal 
Temple of Minerva Polias «— an architecture still beautiful,: 

of the Temple of Jupiter at, Cori. (Fis.: 61),i and of the Ba~ 
silica at. Palestrina (Fis.; 196).; In modern architecture turn 
at. once to the walled up windows of the: pavilions of the 
School of Fine Arts; Duban is the architect,: who with the 
nost, taste is also the most theoretical in the study of 
forms.: Then study the composition of the windows of Palace 
Sachetti (Fig., 187), the doorway of Palace of Venice at, Rome 
(Fig.: 198).; See the magnificent, windows of the court of the 
Louvre (Fig.; 64),: ete.) eto.} | 

finally and nearer us,: l. recommend for your study the char= 
i doorways of the pavilion of music at; the Grand Trianon; — 

take this occasion to show you a sketch of the whole of: 
that, pretty little edifice (Fig.; 199).; : 

You will again find numerous rectangular doorways and wins 
dows,: whose. openings is enclosed by two columns or pilasters 
supporting an entablature.; This is a sort, of porch around = — 
the opening.: This motive was already in use on Roman archi= 
tecture, particularly on the altars: of the Pantheon,: and it 
was in great; favor with Italien artists of the 16th century.7) 
But. its element is the order,: the colonnade,: and I do not 
wish to besin the study of the orders by one of its least ap-= 
plications.: fet, I must now indicate. to you some bean Paeul: ex 
amples of this arrangement; thus the windows of Palaese Farn-= 5 
ese cited peeviously (Ffig.; 14),: and by mame others well known 
and taken here and there; at Catania,: the richly decorated doc 
way of the Cathedral; at Venice the windows of the Procuratios 
an internal doorway of the Palace Dose,: etc.3. finally a wine | 
dow of a palace of Florence,: where the opening is surrounded — 
by an architrave enclosed by two hermes pilasters with entab : 
lature and pediment (Fig.; 200).; 1 shall only say here,: that. 4 
in this case,: the arrangement, forms the true enclosure of the 
doorway or window, and that the simultaneous use of the arch= 
itrave then forms a superfluity,: though freguently an a 
of great. richmess,; : S| 

It is: also necessary to remember that, this mode of decoumal 
tion is possible,: when you ean command sufficient, projection 
to allow ot,° | : ; 

In each of these parts,: the theme has been infinitely variec 


ar aa eee ee | 
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Bisdo. ‘dig pate Soretsvec odf 36 nGidensolaace ets ef 
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mi@ois to. noteeegigxs ei evisedo won Liaw ek 
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soomt bes edeodeyed..,etiogsecy sts aiacuels tiedd 
rads sredtes Be Bs nottsroseb ogi ei iLeeqi natisoussenoo 
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153 

in the same edifice,: the necessary variety is imposed; then 
is the consideration of the severe or. elegant, character. of 
the architecture; the use of different; materials,: richness 
with simplicity.; 

I can neither show nor cite all to you,: and shall no longer: 
dwell on the theory of rectansular dooeways and windowse) | 

He will now observe the expression of architecture im the 
design of arches,: 

Recall what, I. have said of the construction of arches; 
their elementa are voussoirs,: keystones and imposts.; This 


construction itself is the decoration,: or: rather the ex- 
pression of the antigue arch in all its purity.; 

As first; examples,: I will cite two gates of hish antiguiby 
and great; beauty,: those of Falerii. and of Perusia.; 

At. Falerii (Fis., 201) the areh is composed of voussoirs of | 
great dimensioms and has an extrados; between this and the 
masonry of the horizonval courses is a second and thinner se~ 
ries,: whose stones are not. properly voussoirs,: its motive be- 
ing a moulding enclosing the archivolt.) Then in this entirety 
are stones witn special junctions and meritins: decoration 
more than the others,: the impos¥s and. keystone,: decorated 
by mouldings of beautiful profile,: the latter by a seulp- 
tured head. 

Observe this arch;. others have been made since, but, the 7 
style of this has never been excelled; in our modern architect 
ure the most. beautiful arches approxinate this style.: Why? — : 

Because perfect, identity exists between decoration and cons 
struction; because the style you admire is the truth of that, @ 
beautiful architecture,: all of which has its motive,.all is | 
just, and legitimate.; This magnificent, quality of antique arch- 
itecture is found in its. beautiful works,: and it, is thus : 
Since it could not be otherwise,.; q 

At, Perugia (Fis.; 202) the conception is abi dd t he: Same, @X= 
cept. thet. there are two concentric archivolts and elso the — 
series of enclosing mouldings.; The keystone was decorated,: bub 
the imposts are only expressed by the projection of the piers 
beyond the surface of the archivolt,; t 

This gate is also of high antiguity,. beins erroneously eall- 
ed Gate of Augustus on account, of the inscription "Auguste 
Perusia", Ausustus only caused the massacre of the inhabitants 


en ger 5 ie 
vate edd fo onan eid agtseiqs,cigaie’ Yo 
ist Yo tadt sed. weoddt sedied BEig1 «,nicooiivos 
aan ae ‘mort asioces 3i ,feYiddeod yroy ecin 
ae wesigionixg ouse 
<t a Pete re ere -pelgioning seatit 
to ‘guidnesoa. seang bia suxd ov gated, ,acli¢za to 
uh Bee gins thd ¥d wiiovidors io noldsasopeh ~gaaveyes 
soe he pee Mizner se ; gtedd. {is eticeduov eds ¢3 gatveet 
f Gove ,JnomeznaTis lefoiithatds sdt et devs (.sonstss¢ 
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,aceand Dae 


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tae STO apountinco B. c0r .ki% t)- amok. ts 

ed toitewes afiiw.,artoaeadoy eds: to so 
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Paonpat? exe dfoviders dedi ons) ei 2h. 
ed asiots abasd. yd ebais Studesotes setis. 1< 
nollie. bas: Winife ese. ancivoefotq evsai eet .ete 
ont St dorde spoddis .ntemed of etiang to 153 
io iedt sageol andi dfovidows edo ii. pesneooe 
Redd to. row s oteied Bated to eine ed yar voy 

8 ‘beifeo- Jad Bi nesdAyeindcedidsss newoh Bi 
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an @ dent, selgionisa eit to Met sesilggs end [than ei 
jyemidnatidors sutingesys ai yidadea  sediseace 
x asso 9 nolan ezos edetid-yd bedateqeeveis etios 
ride eaeeenstot ‘a3 to ndhtoetihsininesace 

— Dik daomesagaae dade yi bextos 
t ah Nora fut 


Meeting: sazeds Raidoegset Hited yam oi Jace at Set) 


ssa ed jeloaexe 103 seleizeisa to ociventdnde 


eidder jy fe bedousseaco ef diovs ang eee 


‘foam 2. Yoisidisqaseda Cilia, ete. 2c0ljawicses, | 


ea 


154 | 
of Perugia,: placing his name on the city repeopled by his ex- 
ecutioners,; It, is better known than Phat of Falerii,: likee 
wise very beautiful;: it, results from the same art, and the 


Same principles.: | 
These principles are perpetuated through all transformation 
of styles,: being so true and pure; accentinsg of imposts and 
keystone,: decoration of archivolts by enclosins. mouldings;: | 
leaving to the voussoirs all their strength in reality and aps» 
pecerance.; Such is the traditional arrangement, even when the 
jointing has no extrados,: and excepting the case in which the” 
decoration only consists in the jointing itself,: whether plain 
as on the Theatre of Marcellus,: or accented by sunk joints 
and bosséSe! | 
Even when the archivolt is decorated,: it; is always interest= 
ins in what, it: may be in respecting these principles;. thus | 
one of the most, beautiful examples of a decorated archivolt 
is furnished by the principal areh of the: Fountain of Trevi. 
at, Rome (Fig.: 203); a continuous ornament; indeed occupies the 
face of the voussoirs,: while leaving tocthe archivolt its | 
character of unity and strength.; ) 

It, is true that archivolt are frequently divided into two | 
or three concentric rings by bands projectins beyond the oth—™ 
ers.: Yet. these projections are slisht and allow the charac- 
ter of unity to remain,: without which if they were too much ~— 
accented, if the archivolt, thus loses: its character of unity, 
you may be sure of beins before a work of the decadence,: 

In Roman architecture,: then in that, called Byzantine and 
finally Latin,: may be frequently seen arches without, any 7 
mouldings to accent. the forms,: it. being then accented by the 
combination of materials.: For exanple,: the impost, will be of 4 
one or more courses. of bricks making a horizonyal line: of 
color.; The archivolt is constructed of stone or rubble en= 
closed: by a row of end bricks (Fig.; 204).; With other means i 
is still the application of the principles just; stated.; These 
combinations are also susceptible of a certain veriety. Thus” 
sometimes,: notably in Byzantine architecture,: the stone vous 
Soirs are separated by brieks whose: color clearly marks the: 
concentric direction of the jointing.; One is frequently ine 
spired by that, atransement in contemporary architecture,: parte 
icularly in educational buildings.: t 


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ib @d o3 aevieetso wolls don [tie ev ied: weuitiont 
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geonsinan a? <a: fest Gepesioit 


255. 
fhe. intrados of the archivolt is often decorated with more 
or less richness,: almost, always with the same feeling for ua © 
hity and continuity,: which is the character of the intrados 
as. well as of the face of the archivolt,; But, the ornamentatii 
must be quiet, in any case.: The part of the arch in any con= 
struction is always that of the supporting element,: and as 
such should be strong.) This will be its true character.; We 
shall later find the same: character: when condidering arch= 
“Ubravese} .@ 

Finally,: the arch is often decorated by an architrave,: that 
I believe to be merely an architectural imitation of rectang= 
ular gates,: and the vertical architrave has small reason for — 
being with the arch.; There are some examples in antigue ar- | 
chibecture,. of little importance or value.) Nearer us: must be 7 
sousht the most; beautiful models, especially in Florentine 
palaces; first. being Palace Strozzi.; Then see the doorway | 
of the Library of S.i Genevieve and that of the Sehool of Fine 
Arts. Yet. tne aeahiiwnt eat not: 2 motive applicable to 
great, arches,: and I cannot: become accustomed to the archi» 
traves of the sreat arches of the Railway Station du Nord.; 

I have again spoken of antigue examples,: this passing to 
modern examples without, a transition,: since these proceed ding 
rectly from the others.; Between these are the mediaeval are 
ches,: whose study is: no less important,: for mediaeyal archi- 
tecture employed the arch as its ¢hief means of constructions: 
Without, now examining the various functions of the arch,c | 
which have given it the Namesoof transverse,: diagonal,: side 7 
arch and flying buttress, 1 limit. myself to the arch tnt a vl 
as in the preceding.: | 

Romanesque architecture employed almost. entirely the semi~ — 
circular arch,: at first very simple,: then sometines very or- 4 
nate.) But, we will not, allow ourselves to be distracted by the 
ornamentation,: but; observe the: architectural part.; 

If the arch be single,: there is no difference between the 
Romanesque arch and that of Balerii,: unless in sections of | 
mouldings, always a secondary matter. The difference is rather 
in the pier,: rectangular in antique architecture,: Senerally 
lightened by columns in Romanesque architecture thts) i. aee—. 
ue bhi eset or @aigerous,: according to use; if the arch 

y or nearly on the column (Fig.: 205) and is : 


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156 
somewhat loaded,: there will be acechance of crushing it,; On | 
the contrary, if it, have sufficientky, deep voussoirs,. so that 
the pressure be carrisd to the pier beyond the column,there 
is nothings to fear (Fis.; 206),; 

Most. frequently in the great. edifices of that: epoch,: you 
see several arches ==» two,: three or more -— recessed. beyond 
each other,. and if sean from beneath exactly representing 
curved steps.) Referring you to the Gate: of Perusia;: assume 
that, the two arches or rather the. two archivolts of Perugia 
were not. in the same plane,. the smaller receding behind: the: 
other,: this would be the Romanesque arch with several arch= 
ivolts (Fig.; 207).; 

As a construction,: Perugia is: logical,: these superposed: ar= 
chivolts assume considerable weight, to be: borne,: and stepped 
archivoltd are possible in a thick wall.j Except, in special 

cases this wall has its centre of sravity in its: axis,;: and at 
Perugia its pressure is in egquibibrium on the equally loaded 
arch, It. is not the same with the Romanesque arch.: The thick © 
arch £soinsequibtbriumpubat notmthevthini arch, éand thehthisk 
arehceases to be in equilibrium if the thin arch serves to. 

support, the construction above,: however little.) Exasseratins — 
the recess (Fig. 208) and assuming the wall to rest on the: 
thin arch; this resistance beings outside the sravity axis,« 
the thick arch will tend to yield at the unsupported side} | 

then it is erroneous,: as many authors have done,: to attrib * 
ute value as supports to stepped arches.; On the contrary for 
Sood construction,: it is necessary for the thick areh to be ; 
able to bear the load of the wall above,: the thin arch re i 
portins nothins,.: ; : 

Then assuming the Arch of Falerii,. and that below and be-= ; 
hind the face of that. arch are one,. two or three suecessive 

stepped arches,: the whole will be as solid: as: at Palerii, (bu 
With a useless addition.; 

Why that addition? For several reasons.: Perhaps for cent- 
erins,: difficult, for a great arch,: easy for a small one.; In 
Romanesque architecture the steps are not, so pronounced as i: 


Sravity of each certainly falls within the preceding archi~ 
volt (Fig. 209),: and when archivolt, 4 is complete on the wood~ 
en centering, it serves as a centering for 2,: ete.; 


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157 

But: particularly these steoped archivolts form a shelter | 
and a porch.; The door. or window is beyond this: porch and far 
from rain,: and the motive has a decorative flexibility that. 7 
perfectly justifies the arrangement,: on condition that one 7 
learns just what he is doinsg,: when he has hecourse to it,; 

4s. for arches constructed as in the sketch (Fig.; 210),: such’ 
as sometimes found in irrational imitation of Romanesque arch- 
itecture,: and perhaps in that architecture itself,. it is six 
ply bad construction,.: 

In Romanesgue: arches the intrados is: not. decorated, (with 
perhaps some exceptions.: These are at an acute angle with 
the face of the archivolt,: or rather the angle is replaced by 
2 round mouldings (Fis.: 211).; As for the face, after being | 
smooth as in the older monuments,: it ended by a 
with various ornaments,: often contredictory to the feelins of 
the construction,: like chevron or: billet: mouldings.; | 

Finally,: stepped arches naturally result, in stepped piers,:— 
and then by the custom of resting each arch on a column,: we | 
arrive at the well known and very decorative motive of the 
Romanesque porch.; This arrangement, is rich in appearance, — | 
often carried to great elegance as on the beautiful porch of 
S.; Frophime at Arles,:or the pobtal of the Church S.: Croix at, 
Bordeaux (Fig.: 212); but, this delicacy is: only justified if 7 
these steps do not, bear the weisht: of the construction above, 
that. would crush the columns.: > SERs i 
If you have recourse to this motive,: think carefully of the > 
construction as always.; Note the function of the arches, ef= 
fective or decorative,: and arranse that, bearins arches are j 
supported,| ; 

By insensible transitions,: Romanesque architecture became 


t 


| 


Gothic architecture. The arch is drawn with two centres,: at 
first very near other and then more distant.; Volumes have: 
been written on the origin of the oointed. arch; this is not, — 
my domain,: but I. study it, as it is,: where I. find. it,: and 
whence it. comes. I shall also have occasion to speak of the 
pointed arch in more detail,: when treating of religious arch=| 
itecture.; . Al 
The pointed arch at: first, presents the: same characteristics 
as the Romanesque arch,: the archivolt, being clearly indicated, 
This appearance is also found in italian pointed arches at. 


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258 

Florence,: Siena,: etc.; But. as: the middle ages became mors as= 
sured in the possessions of its methods and took more confia — 
dence in itself, boldmess: became the quality most, sought,; | 
Then the archivolis were recessed more,: until great, hollows 
ended by giving arches an appearance of an acute section (Fisy 
BAA Joh 
At. the same time,: the arch passed farther from the starting 
point of its study -- which was the simplicity and emphasized 
visor of the structural element. «— the arch became the theme 


and pinnacles; figures cut. in the solid: ended by beings pre- 
pared in the studio,: and were set, by the aid of cramps. in the 
recesses of the architecture.: The richness is amazing,: but, 
the architectural element: has somewhat, vanished to sive place 
to the statuary element.) See especially the masnificent por 
tals: of Notre Dame,: of Rheims,: Amiens and so many others,: | 
whose infinite variations I cannot explain,: numerous examples 
of which have been shown,.: 

Yet, viewed in general and by the combination of recesses,: 
these grand church porches retain a grand appearance of re- 
assuring stability.; All this development, of archivolts ar- 
ouses the idea of sreat, breadth of vaulted constructions; In- — 
decd the elements of this construction are. lost; from view,:p 
partly masked by the statues, but, one feels its existence; if” 
“not. presented to the eyes as in the antigye or the primitive Q 
Romanesque arch,: if no longer the art. of simplicity,: it is: an” 
admirable art so long as it, does not revolt against the re- © 
guirements of construction,: so lons as it, is governed: by the — 
Same principles that: we have seen in Grecian art,: so long as © 
its works are as they are and could not be otherwise.) 7 

The arch has such importance in architecture and its func | 
tion is so characteristic,: that, this element, alone suffices ~ 
to determine the styles.; From the antique architecture of the 
Gate of Falerii to the end of the middle ages, the gradual | 
and continuous evolution of architecture is manifested by ther 
design of the arch.: | 

The arch permits you already appreciate the difference: bee 4 
tween the architecture of antiquity and of the middle agess; 
Both are necessarily dominated. by the laws of construction. ae 
3ut, antbigue architecture accepts construction as artistic a 


ae ee 


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159 | 
direction,: conforming to it; loyally and without, resistance,: 
requiring skill in execution,: but; its conceptions are simple 
and easy;- it. does: not, hassle with stability,: but, ensures aie 
its: proof,.; 

More skilful,. ingenious: and also more complicated, ( mediae~ 
val architecture does not, escape the rule of construction,: 
but rather permits than accepts: it,i seeks the minimum of mate 
ial in both reality and appearance,: employs Sreat, experience: 
in construction to struggle asainst. requirements and almost — 
evade its laws,: loses boldmess,: and is not displeased becauss 
the stability of its works astonishes observers,: 

Thus when the time: came for gntigque architecture to verish,« 
it. did not, perish for its princdple; on the contrary,: prudent 
Ssasacity and respect, for stability enabled it. to survive,: wher 
the ignorance and decadence of a decayed civilization had lost 
all its skill,: and even extinguished the arts: and trades; 
while Gothic,: faded and exhausted by the exagseration of its 
tendencies and skill;. when increasingly mistress of its means 
and trustins to audacity,:it, pursued the unrealizable and the 
admiration of feats,: when it: no longer lived eacept by dexter: 
ity and not, by principles.: Anti que architecture fell by the | 
invasion of barbarism,: Gothic archifecture vanished in eee ful 
prosress of civilization.,; 

In the preceding,. I have especially spoken of spaniel 
omitting until later the arcade vortico.; The isolated arch,: 
doorway. or window frequently borrows. its architecture from 7 
the portico; such are the arches enclosed by columns and en~ i 
tablature.; We shall return to this in treatins of the orders.? 

Yet I. must. again cite. some beautiful examples of doorways 
or. windows so conceived. They are innumerable,. but it suffi- / 
ces to indicate the doorway of Palace Cancellaria,: that of 4 
Palace Sciarrea (Fis.; 181),: an internal doorway of Palace Doge 
and that, of Palace Camerlinghi. at Venice, the pretty windows 
of the court. of Palace Doge next, S.; Marco,: the doorway of ) 
Chateau, of Beouen by Jean Bullant (Fig.; 214), finally one em 
closed by caryatids instead of columns,: the celebrated doorwa} 
of the City Hall of Toulouse by Puget (Fis,.; 215).; i 

The arched window is common after the middle ages; then it” 
is naturally enclosed by an archivolt,: the jambs being often 
treated as little columns.; These elements were already men- 


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160 
tioned.) 

Since the Renaissance, the arched window has. frsauauanee 
been treated with elements analosous to those of the rect= . 
ansular window,: architrave,: cap with or without frieze,: and _ 
sometimes consoles.: Considerations are nearly the same,: and 
cannot do better than indicate the arched windows of Balace( 
cellaria at, Rome as masterpieces of tabbe and design (Fis.2 

Then the doorway and window with semicircular or segmental 
arch played a very important, part; in French architecture of | 
the 17th and 18th centuries.: Fine examoles exist, at; Versaille 
on the Palace,: and those of the chapel are treated rather — 
as arches in a portico (Fis.; 217).; You cam see the doors a 
way of the Palace of the Council of War at, Paris,: the wins S| 
dows of the great, pavilions of the Louvre next, the Quay,: and) 
a Sreat. number of other examples in the old manstons of the 
Marais or of Faubours #.; Germain.: I. can only show you the les 
known doorway. of an ols: mansion at, Dijon.; (Pig.; 218). i 

The arch,: by its construction and function calls: for bossa 


and sunk joints,: and numerous examples exist.; In antiquity i: 
found Gate Massiore at. Rome,: but especially in the Renais= — 
sance was this motive employed with such breadth and style,ei 
ther as a doorway whose value is in the jointing,: like those 
of Palace Farnese. at. Rome,: Palace Pandolfini at Florence,: or 
that of Villa Medici; or these doorways were accompanied by 
columns,: like the gateway of the old Farnese gardens at, Rome, 
that. of the oval court of Fontainebleau,: of f Fort, 8.) Andrea at 
Verona (Fis. 219),: a masterwork of San Micheli, or by pila a 
ters like those of the Caprarola and of the. gallery of the Gm 
eourt, of fountains at. Fontainebleau; I cannot. review hei 
riety of combination tried by artists,: always: the same ones 
ways novel for real talent,: 

Some varieties of windows are to be treated, oll ipeieste 
rosette, trefoil or round; all these require no. bheoresdmaiie 
considerations,: any more than niches. Dormers will be mens ~ 
tioned in connection with roofs; for the oresent I conténue 
wibh the very elementary subject of an opening in a walle: The 
isolated openings has been examined,. and I come. to continuot 
openings,: i.e.,: porticos,: which will be the subject, of the — 
next. book,: 


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164 
BOOK fs ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE,; q 
II.: GROUPED OPENINGS OR PORTICOS,; «= THE ORDERS.) 
Porticos.; ~= The antique order.;-- The different, orders 
Arcade porticos,: ae, 


CHAPTER I.; PORTICOS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION,- 

SUMMARY.; += Piers and their various formda.; «= Arched pol 
ticos; resistance of angles.; =» Portiicos abbited by buildings 
on facades or in courts.; -~ Porticos on circular plans: == Su= 
perpositions.; | oree | 
Foresight required in the study of the. ree 


Porticos have been defined as Aopeninss grouped in a series 
and separated by simple piers".: In principle a portico is not 
closed,: but if Slaged,: it, still retains the character and de-= 
sign of an open portico.; Then in this primary sect of ehciet: 
portico,: it, must be. assumed as open.; 

First, examine the pier.: 

The primitive form of the pier was: evidently square,: syones 
beins set. on each other or a monoligfh with four sides made 
the pier.: Connectins one pier: with another by lintels or 
arches ordduced the portico.: eo oe 

But the square pier obstructs passage,: its angles: are round 
ed off, being nearly useless in construction.: Henee fromthe. 
polygonal was necessarily attained the round pier, (the ‘ool- 9 
umn: i <a 

All fancies deriving antique colonnades fron the memopy of- 
forests,: of the cabin of tree trunks,: ete.;: are purely imag~ 
inatrons of poets oniarchaeolosists.: The truth is more pracm 
tical and Sechetiia hac anes Ss ae 

* Note.! Sov a tong tive hoe. tiveovy i aut Me 
Lave, vane ix tound barticutarty in the Dlettonnaire of & 
vemerve de luimey (who was not an avchbeek). ij.) Deoeur Ade 
fully demonstrated tte atubidity in Ale course on theory. ! idl 

The cylindrical pier or column may also. support. lintels or. 
orders,: forming colonnades or arcades,: a. 

From the point of view of construction,: what. was said oft 

arches,: lintels and platbands in speakins of: opeatngel-egumae 


a 


ly applies: to porticos.: Yet. one observation is important. for 
arched porticos or those with jointed platbands.; 
while an opening made in a wall always has piers at right. 

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162 
and left,. whose mass neutralizes the thrust of: the arch or 
olatband,: permitting the use of that. mode of jointins without 
danser,: this is not, so with the portico forming alone a fa- 
cade.; Assume an arrangement; like this (Fig.; 220); at h the © 
thrusts of the arches are neutralized, and all stresses have 
as. resultant, @ vertical alons the axis of the pier,: making pe 
fect conditions.But, at, B nothings resists the thrust of the 
arch outwards,: and this thrust, combines with the weight, P of 
the construction above to give an inclined resultant, R,: hence 
the overthrow,.; Not, a localized overturn,: since if the first. 
arch fails,: the second is then in the condition of the first, 
and thus continues the entire failure of the facade.; A new 
oroof of the importance of the angles,; 4 

Instead of arches assume jointed platbands and the result: © 
will be the same but more to be feared,: since the platband 
exerts the greatest thrust, of all arches,; 

Thus when you see an arrangement, of this kind with arches,: 
like that. on Palace Doge of Venice. (Bis, 221),: be assured . 
that some artificial means must. have been employed to suppre; 
the thrust;- on that: nonunenk; arsyeiaibiesi 
means has: been frequently. employed and is not to be condemne 
yet. it. is more logical and has a better. effect for security 
of appearance,:to make the angle piers different from those ~ 
intermediate,: and sufficient, of themselves to resist the’ 
thrust, (Fig.; 222).; : = 

For jointed pTatbands the difficulty is sreater.: The stan i 
ple tie-rod is no longer possible,. or it must, pass through th 
voussoirs to connect. the imposts,: This: was: often done at. the 
Pantheon in Paris (Fis.; 225).; Holes in the sfone. are Filled 
by iron bars,:« doubly dangerous,«injaring the stone and also 
liable to rust,: expand and bugst. the stone,. a frequent acci= 
dent.) For colonnades the only practical and rational method 
is the monolithic lintel,: always employed by the ancient s,: 7 
whose forms have been frequently borrowed without, dorrowing , 
Wisdom in their use,.} 

Nothins better than the Pantheon: can show what. direvoultieen 
are encountered by desiring to violate the laws of: const 

tion in architecture,; I. respect. the work of: Soufflot. as mue 
as anyone,. it being very remarkable. in many respects,: but, — 
having eas rcs small materials, he desired to sean 


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164 
colonnade of very great. dimensions; the means are ingenious — 
and scientific,: the result, may be astonishinsg,: and doubtless” 
when 2a work is beautiful,: an account, of the means used may. ; 
not, be required.: But an artificial work must, be precarious; © 
antigue colonnades have all the eternity, that. human works 
may promise; if we must reproduce them ~~ and I do not oppose 
~~ at least, have the courage to resort. to antique means,: a~ 
lone in harmony with their composition,; 

It. is not, the same if a portico be placed between resistant 
pavilions,: as: on the beautiful monuments of Place de la Con= 
corde (Fis.: 59).; The mass: of the pavilion neutralizes: all ; 
thrust, acting in arches or platbands,: and for the portiso on= 
ly the stability of its elements: is necessary.} | 

hikewise in a court, when internal vaults resist, the thrust 
of the arches.: Assume a olan with arched portico next, the 
court(Pis.: 224).; In two directions internal arches exist, on 
the extended lines of the columns;. beyond these arches are  F 
solid walls forming actual buttresses; stability is then as= © 
sured,: although the sangle pier may not be sufficient to ene~ 
sure it. will cite the court of Palace: Caneellaria (Fis.: 225), 
at, Rome,: one of the most beautiful examples of an internal | 
court. with porticos.: . 

We shall later: see in speaking of vaults: what. resistances 
porticos must. ensure transversely.: It. is evident. that. the. 
section and architectural form of the piers must, very accords” 
ing as: they are more or: less: loaded,: more or less in danger 
of being overtheown.; Thus in the plan of the court of the = 
Cancellaria,. the slenderness: of the columns: is: only possible 
fortwo reasons; they are of granite with marble capitals: ande 
bases,: and the thrust of the vaults is neutralized by iron 
tie»rods ex bending transversely. You will appreciate these 
considerations better after having studied the functions and 
effects of vaults.) 

On a circular plan the curve closes, and there are neither » 
angle nor intermediate piers.; All bays are in identical con= © 
ditions,: but. all present the danger: from overhangs inherent — 
in all circular structures.: Thus porticos peguiring &@ sone 
Sible angle between two bays cannot, be constructed.: The lit — 
tle: rotunda of the Trianon (Pis.: 226),. called Temple of Love, 
isi’ a pretty example of a circular portico,: realized without, an 


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164 

use of iron and only by skill in stereotomy.; 

Although the portico may be: covered,: the rainwater enteral 
if assumed to be open, If it, be in the ground: story and sim= 
oly over steps or a sidewalk,. there are no difficulties;. a 
slight. slope is Siven to its pavement and to ensure its re= — 
sistance to water.: But, if it, be enclosed by balustrades in an 
story, outlets must, be provided for. rainwater,; The quantity — 
not, being sgreat,: no leaders ars necessary and several outlets 
saffice.; Yet. this is always a very delicate point, of the 
study,: negligence of it, causins serious inconveniences.; 

Porticos are: not, always detached edifices,: but, often form 
apart of a facade in stories.) lie have seen them superposed 
on Place de le Concorde: or asain at the colonnads of the 
Louvre.) They also exist, in the ground story receiving an en= — 
closed structure above. Such is the case on Palace Doge,: pre- 
viously cibed,. on the buildings along Rue de Rivoli, the The- 
atre Francais,: ete.) Then,: provided the sfone of the piers of=— 
fers a sufficient, resistance to the crushing produced by verte 
ical pressure, this additional load increases the stability — 
of the portico itself bu neutralizing the thrust of the: arche) 
és or jointed platbands.; Thus for these porticos stability 
may be pBecarious durins construction,: becomins definite when 
the eee ee are builta; 


the wooo pe es increases rs ih at: igen = the o: eb aha of 
the lower portico. Such ars these of the facade of S.; Sul= 
pice or of many internal courts,: like the court. of Palace Fara 
nese at, Rome,: or those recently demolished: of: the old Palace © 
d'Orsay at. Paris,: a memory of which 1b, is of ine 
serve (Figs.; 227,: 2283.; | 
Such are the primary dates of the onnuben ate of por» : | 
ticos,: All this: requires the scientific study on construction; 
I merely deduce some things in passins.; | 
The more open your. architecture, the greater need of- rus 
dence,: which must. increase in n the study in accordance with 
the boldness of the results desired.; 4 
In the study of a plan =~ once that the arrangement, is fixe 
ed -- you should always and particularly think of the upper | 
parts of the structure.; A plan must be studied by clovatiaes | 
the eyes in thought,.; The upper parts control ibj.3 co 


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166 
CHAPTER II,, THE ANTIQUE ORDERS... 
SUMMARY,: Column,: capital,: architrave;. reconstituted 
Wall. «= Portico of Caryatids at, Athens.: -—~ Entablatures — 
with friezes., ~~ Function of each part.; -~ Composition 
common to the different, orders.: 


The study of porticos reached its climax and established 
its principles in the antique orders,.: Before beginninsS with @ 
the antique orders,: | will explain what an antique order is 
in its unity.: The classifications called Doris,: Ionic,: Corin= 
thian and Tuscan are only special cases of the same conception 
orimary divisions fromtthe. point, of view of character and. 
style,: and these may be infinitely Subddivided.: | 

At. regular: distances,: primarily determined by the possible 
length of the stone lintels,: are. placed the shafts of columnsy) 
which are round,: the form best adapted for passage and for | 
light, and for avoidins shocks disagreeable to persons and ine 
_jurious to the monument.) This form is also beautiful.: Most. fre 
“quently. indeed,: the column is fluted,: a traditional memorial © 
of the. transition from the square pier to the circular section 
the angles were removed to. form the octagon,: then passing from 
eight, to sixteen sides, the number of flutes in the most an= © 
cient; Doric orders.: | 4 

This circular column is: not, a cylinder but. at. first a trunee 
cated frustum of a cone,: then assuming a slight, entasis,: al- 
ways. smaller at, top than at, bottom.; Is this a simple caprice 
or search for effect? No,: for the construction demands it,: 
the column beings more loaded at, base and less: at. top; larger 
and heavier olocks are best, handled near the ground thah to — 
raise them to a great heisht,: and through their upper inter= 
columniation chiefly passes light. Finally,: the mind requires 
a pyramidal appearance,: and so this architecture everywhere - 
realized the absolute harmony of requirenents never equalled _ 
by construction,: with the esthetic satisfaction of the most, | 
perfect taste.: E 

The column has an entasis,: Gat: not, a regular surface by & 
curate Seneration,: and it, is never swelled,: In modern archiall 
tecture have been used swelled: columns,: a esutae imitapion | 
of a column crushing under its load.; The perversion from the 
Vitruvian superstition by reading in Vitruvius,:. that. the ecole 


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aan Riki seks tikes ie) etidiasa® nee 
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ehd-o8 “gwibsel wollivss cd2 no: botoilial “esas 
sero nt eneutoo we vhelen eft wo betao ed iTtw 
ne a aanobdes? fanotserst. Lie ettt loons iF 
> ett bedcvadenco 6c.Jdaom enenleo @asnhs evo 
pies yevard ldots Gia ‘to cobsonias sas ei ro 
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“ybaerie ES -,VSAtSE TAGS fisntataa eh¢-tatateces 
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pened beseixe etuinsgo ge 2tP es Suk laincr 
Pride yhebiove deed etRs Pivon exnecd oe. ereselh 
aT ioe 603 Yo nroiateib: iaiehon bos lesidqeds 
Daag: ero8 £ Ss insi@adse: posd bcd etude lds ine 
wiht VoD eva tities eds bite ehataoige ett 
OReCE.. aReisesicre SaFege sors eds tod besa #’ | 
yest Magne 29) ptoes ed? sviscss oF Betlop.. © 
dia Santase fesex @¢ extech en eved TD deo. . 
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. 167 ? 
umn exhibits at about one-third its height, what. the Greeks 
termed entasis,: translated by swelling instead of convexity., 
If you desire evidence,: compare in the court, of the Louvre 
the admirable columns: of the Renaissance portico with those 
later inflicted on the pavilion leading to the Quay.; You 
will be cured on the malady of columns in form of cigars,: tems 
porary like all irrational fashions,: 

Above these columns must. be constructed the continuous wall) 
which is: the funetion of the architrave,. though this: does not) 
rest, directly on the shaft; this: bearins would be issuffi- ! 
Cient,: and the rounded column must, again become a square: pier. 
to support, the architrave.; Thus it, terminates in the capital,@ 
a last, course,: round at, base to fit. the column,: square at. 
top to receive the architrave.: Then every capital is not. 
merely an ornament, but a support,: always passing from the 
circular: to the square in all combinationa.: | 

Thus are the columns constructed,: properly aligned,: spaced © 
and on a level.: From axis: of one column to that ef the next — 
extends the stone architrave,: a word exactly corresponding to. 
main beam and termed epistylion in Greek,: meaning on columns.: 
These lintels arse single in lensth,: but are often two or some= 
times three in width.; S80 the architrawe is a lintel (Fig.; | 
229),: composed of a rectangular: section crowned by a fillet.: 7% 
hen its sectionsbeeomes complex,: the merely rectangular secon 
tion gives place to facias projecting beyond. each other,: yet, — 
retaining the original character,: as already stated for the @ 
lintel, architrave and archivolt,: 

The wall is then restored,: and we can proceed with a hori- 
zontal course,: as if no openings existed beneath,: 

Much nonsense would have been avoided,. if for the purely | 
graphical and modular division of the order into column and © 
entablature had been substituted a more real division,: i-e.3: 
the colonnade and the architrave covering it,: then creating ~ 
a need for the protecting projection,: i.s.,:the entirety rem 
quired to receive the roof,: for which the portico is covered) 

But. f have no desire to rebel against. an expression accsdte 
ed for columns,: for names are of little imoortance if produc= 
ing no changes,: so I. state that, the architrave is the first, 
part, of the entablature.; . x 

what, is found above the architrave again depends on the con 


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168 . 
struction,: and will be first, explained,: aside from an anom= — 
aly to be mentioned: later.: 1 now treat, of the final theory 
of the antique order,: not, of the phases: through which it pass 

There remains: a unigue example,: that, logically exhibits the 
conception of the entablature,: the portico of Caryatids or 
Pandroseum of Athens (Fiss,.; 230,: 251).; 

Perhaps. you will be surprised,: that in regard to the antigt 
order,: 1 first, mention an exceptional monument without the. 
primary element, of the order,: the column,: which is: not, with-— 
out. a motive,; 

You, know that, this monument; is small and built, against, a 
buildins.; As covering it, only exhibits thick marble: slabs). 
ceilins below and roof above.: 

Then naturally the ends of the slabs form the cornice set. 
directly on the architrave with nothing between thea.: This 
construction dictated the architectural treatment,.: 

Bus. this. course of slabs forming both ceilings and. roof is © 
exceptional, and less simple compositions were necessary vee 
larger monuments.,; . 7 

There in the mostrrational construction (Fis.: 232). ening’ 
beams were placed on the architrave,: principal beams perpen= 
dicular to the facade and centering over the columns,: These 
beams then do not. permit: a cantinuous course like a cornice 
eCourse, since they support, the compartments of the ceiling,: 
to be studied later,: and that, do not. allow the direct placing 
of the cornice on the architrave.; Hence a wall course with 
openings for the ends of the beams,: and sometimes composed of 
two slabs,: ob even left. open,; 

This is the frieze,.: | . 

fhe frieze is thus’ a first course of the wall above the lin 
tel,: has the character of a vertical course,: and when decora-= 
ted is always vertical.- . 4 

It then remains to crown and protedt. the wall by its core Z 
nice,: as already seen for walls,; 


: nd 
Thus the entablature consists of architrave,: frieze and COR 
nice,: connected with the construction,: the columns and entab- 
lature constituting the order,; : a 

The orders vary infinitely in their details and the gradam — 
tion of their proportions.: But this variety does not: destroy 


the artistic unity of the orders,: governed by the hes 4 


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169 


logical law to be stated.; like st 

I will exhibit, first. an example, rather ideal because so 
simple,: and presenting no addition to tne synthesis of the 
antique order,: that. of the Temple of Pietas at, Rome (Fig.; 25% 

In oresentins. it, some remarks are to be madee: . 

You have already seen that, the column is diminished froma 
bottom to. top,: does: not. have a straight, but, slightly convex §@ 
outline.- 

This requires a brief digression; 

The Greeks were both very artistic and very prudent,: had 
re Mcgee ioe une i Shee eae deine. much abre 
ee sca Atte eiicten) and surely cert asa hehe a 
the past.) They felt, no need to create new elements,: since 
those at. command sufficed for their combinations, but, they 
continually hoped to make them more perfect. lt. may be said — 
that all Grecian architects up to Ictinus labored to design 
the entasis of the columns of the Parthenon.” i | 

The oldest, columns being really conical,: they doubtless ob— 
served that the two bhelined s&tratshts bined appeared-by an op- 
tical illusion to produce a double concave outline.; This outm 
line was then slightly curved,: just. enough for this right © 
line not. to. offend a delicate eye.; ee | 

The order of the Temple of Pietas has: no bases] Similar are 
all of the most, ancient. colonnades,: a dase being. inconvenient, 
When the Greeks employed bases es useful for the footing of © 
the column, these were at first, made. circular,: only later ap= 
gearing the custom of placing them on a square plinth.; This 
plinth is a transition between the straight. lines: of the 
ateps and the column,: and has: an evident archibectural beauty, 
but, when the colonnade is used for passage, its angles are ob- 
structive and are sgradbakly removed by accidents.; | 

The cornice here ends in a cyma,: in the form of a cavetto 
above the facia,. which is a departure from traditional prin=: 
ciples.) It, is not, a part, of the cornice but. an element of the 
coverins,: so that. when the materials differ,.the material of 
the coverings is that. of the cyma;. for example, the facia may” 
be stone and ecyma of terra cotta KFig.: 234).: . | 

I. shall later speak of the composition of each part, ef: they 
order; a 


wy da ksi va et ci eae 
nee tad Ita vote od “Wee seb. Da ion one ik: 
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i qe k Tete. yiniedred Aaeotiesiiags tsiney ylieers 
i oi baensice seenetiih yiev oF yiolasy asi ys sige 
as ee sinal pirvod yesebio ID gsilice? Jeers osid | 
re 3 ator” ‘exivivo Sindts o¢ bacadarit0o estan seodt 
ee be I endidessgs! eeuots geddvert tol dod belti 
a Studies Cota to bee i oeastele ieteoss 
fee tidewos cals ,eeiveitsy ¢tinitai evs 
bilan ta peers dis yi lenri sn8 j.tesd co 
Bitte igntxved fas fool’. ciase beibsie of 
Neig-o Bisa soed ced Jordin ves¥e duh 
penticoem ft janoivcbart.o¢inttni siods 
Midas 67 wee Gatds Sno Yla:.colvbox \ sore 
on . pignedonzaiio. ‘Yo aotepetgrs Hoes seansthor1g ose 
Br Getident od. bag (jeolcasxs Uvtidcced -deoe 
aan Ee jesdeico toon end disses isis! 
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170 

At. present,: I. have desired to show all that. is common in ~ 
this unvaryins conception,: whether the character. of the arches 
itecture be rich or poor,: severe or. eléesgant.; 4 

This is the antique order in its entirety,.so. complete. and. 

ith the masterly beauty of truth.: Its place in design is 
the greatest, of all by the great instruction resulting there- 
from;: as well as historically by excellence in architecture.: 
You cannot, study it, too much,: not, because you may. have to | 
make a colonnade,: but. because in studyins it,: you study your- 
selves.; ' . 

Yet, this order must. lend itself to numerous needs,: for hows 
ever simole is the architecture: of a civilization,: it has 4 
Sreatly varied applications.) Certainly,: the antique adapts if 
self by its variety to very different, expressions; henee the 
three great. femilies of orders,: Doric,: lonic and Corinthian. © 

These names correspond to. ethnic origins more or. less just-= 
ified,: but, for us they arouse impressions of earnest, strength 
Sraceful elegance,: and of rich na jpety ee ee 
are infinite varieyies,: also sometimes borra@winss from each | 
other.; But. finally all these belons to the three types to. o@ 
be studied,: Doric,: Tonic and Corinthian,, 2 

But, after what. has been said of the proportions and of @ 
their: infinite Sradations,: I. decline to make a canon of obe 
ligatory modules.; Only one thing may be said; in each case,: 
each orosramme,: each expression of character,: observe the 
most. beautiful examples,.: and be inspired by thet 
later present the most celebrated examples with their variet : 
You can derive from them your sie ania / tee in full liberty of 
choice..: 


an” ae he eraoa Til aetaauo 

“pit. ebte oftod nekaesd w- .YSANNDZ 
te. netsedidl -- <nofdous? #voddin 21) sseix? 
eens. om (nissiogd «= -¢neulo0 ~~ “.esuios? 
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re oss, hick aselvourssave evieseobue -- aciaics bas 
; Foca eli sd boow RO? poistienss? -- 


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epeeite edi tailioawimoo Jneness goan 
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tent Soi (gncigestd fled s dou svoxg of dexit 


pat: 220° Medeeig.otd noneddisS ecc te noidese edz 
is ar eitesiachs ef) evafoo eft ivodo? edé to 
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fe ee eis ietideines, 25. tier eat. a ete Bane 
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ci oft j.weelery an ied eseiat 


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472 
CHAPTER III... DORIC ORDER.. 

SUMMARY,: ~— Grecian Doric order,. its character.) == 
Frieze is wothout function. -~ Imitation of wooden archi-« 
becture.: == Column.; == Capital.) «— Architrave,: «— Frieze; . 
triglyphs and metopes.: =~ Hypothesis of origin of Doric frieg 
and cornice. «—- Successive constructions of the entablature,.” 
~~ Transition from wood to stone.: 


fhe Doric order is particularly the Grecian order, most. max 
gisterial and most perfect. in style.; It. requires precise and 
thoroush study.: Yet. the Grecian Doric order,: properly so- 
called,: I hope at least, will not. be employed by you,: for less 
than any other does it, lend itself: to reproducyion,: even its 
perfection makings imitations grotesque.: But. as students,: noth 
ins better than the Doric order can show you to what degree 
the perfection of the study of architecture may be carried,- 

Yet this Doric order,: possessing universal admiration and — 
elevated by admiring superstition above all criticism,: I shal 
dare to show that, it. is defective in ome respect,: and that 
its: perfect, architectural logic sins in one point, that in 
the Grecian Doric order as seen constructed at, Sina or on | 
the Parthenon (Fis.; 235),: the magnificent, frieze,: a predomi= 
nant, element comtrollins the arransement,: has of itself no 
reason for existence, Not a Grecian phenomenon,:; 

First to prove such a bold blasphemy. For that,: observe 
the section of the Parthenon,: the plaster cast, in the court. 
of the School. The column is admirable in all respects and ail 
so the architrave; certainly elements identical with their 
function in all points.: After the three blocks of the archi= — 
trave are set, the wall is reconstituted and only requires ~~ 
the coverins of the portico by ceiling and roof == the orojec= 
tion of the cornicsa,: 

Yet a second course as also set. before any element, of the 
ceiling appears,. which is the friege,: The ceiling and cor- 
nice misht, rest, directly on the architrave without it; the 
frieze being useless.; The composition of the order of caryate 
ids,: of the Pandroseua would again suffice here.: 


"hat if a thing be useless,. if it is beautiful or very beau= 


tiful? Thwe word useless go contradicts all Grecian archi» 
tecture, that here is a fact, requirins explanation.; This 


- 


% 
ae. 
(aoa 
@. 
- 


Piatt Gates» (lar0sen- “ee ei acitsoslaxe 
basses fee Aaingote o x2 .e1ddnesicess. dgbhoow to 
2 30 Sei Teun aie feow edd ~noaeancosic unt 
i nA. ai. | otndés ids ine piiot.ies ds) ,.ates 
ead “simeidze¢ at te9eed 4h.  beseednes et mids 
“agidedzni eho>nt: ethieideins ofsoG end to aigize 
— e bedouttasos. ‘eva (wtiedio | asthe es nO ise 
“Sis eat ddiw dud efi mor? ein soeiidow afdag Yc 
Le ea. to% 8h, SYSS2z6 [sp tboigqeuioais ereadd evacod 
sae “ek inde Wedns. gitod.ens gi foow.to soldntins 
bede 3o netieniaaso9 erage edd oni essiat aid % 
Rais tend yaidiety. edie” Seshat ei noisavint etd? 
Lee Bt QBHS9S | yilei isi. Sooigectiut gada ye 
ag102 ed g@isdex Ullencicibesd oj 21 eootilbs anol 
a codaatadiais edi -noltetaney yd betsetseenoo sons 
gare gethi.guc: sdivoeboow yd. fetevoo bas be 
Oey. sequel ou.0dbedeilisies, nocd, se8 
eee: Ene bodsio9sacce s1e% wersot edd dad 
“ob 2 dadd bise vie nenpet? eyes] 
pnien « Sud dqgepos. jemoodo Jayn sao 583 
EEO wanted batsaade 8 ee NOt seninexe 
eraner sensed -b is arise 
e be sete ‘edd ae eye dosare eAg et ofvod ods cosad 
ren Jeon: “ete et aide. anual lis trracth 
sa Od NYavgenen ned: at. di. sentndocedi 5 ta sneer 
os to ,dcesbis Jnensnmsé 2igd 26 he “eeteniaed 
HIG. netos sh add» fodeedas qrkning ait Yo -aciis 
aa wee | ma tewol to? ee tf eabteti yer er egsdus4 
» fe; Ieindoedtions ae ai 2eh19 Sigel ssioenl aut 
Pyboow Alidyow.s ic Jedd tniniores nabdlecqeos 
ge ies So. eaeisibacs. odd Yo benieves ets BNOESIOS 
| ek Baiedidedss onato: Jo. gen of: earl Rotdivean 
veaedal benieicxs yiiat exvex od Liiw joatade 
DF canetss » es very Ae bia. Geol emia 


2199 
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\~. tablatures,. and particularly the frieze,: 


172 
explanation is: very natural,: being the traditional imitation 
of wooden architecture.: By a singular and rather disconcert-= 
ing phenomenon, the most. monumental element, of stone architec 
ture, the Doric entablature,: is an imitation of wood,: though 
this: is contested,: M.: Leseur in particular has sought the 
orisin of the Doric entablature in the imitation of Egyptian 
art. On the contrary,: others: have constructed a derivation 
of this architecture from the hut, with its trunks of trees.: 
beave these archacclogical essays, as for me a proof of the — 
imitation of wood in the Doric entablature is the uselessness 
of the frieze in the stone construction of the Parthenon, | 
This imitation is indeed quite visible; look for yourselves! 

Why that imitation? Naturally because the spirit, of relig- 
ious edifices is to traditionally retain the forms and appear 
ance consecrated: by veneration.: The first temples were ceil~ 
6d and covered by woodwork,. but, fires were numerous.) The rule 
was. then established to no longer use combustible materials: 
but the forms were consecrated and respected: 

I have frequently said that, I do not teach archaeology. 
But, one must. choose; accept, the antique Doric order without. 
examination as a startins point,: or seek to. understand its 
sense and. comoosition,: . 

One fact doninates all, else, in the evolution of architec- 
ture; the Doric is the Mee gree of the antique orders,: and | 
during all transformations,: this is the most, persistent ele= _ 
ment of architecture; it, is then necessary to know either ther 
beginning point. of this permanent; element,: or the law of- forme 
ation of its: primary ancestor,: the Grecian Doric order.; 

Perhaos we may define it. as follows: == 7 

fhe Grecian Dorie order is an architectural element with a 
composition remaining that of a work in wood,: but. whose pro= 4 
portions are soverned by the conditions of truth and necessity 
resulting from the use of stone substituted for wood.: This d 
subject. will be more fully explained later,: when I ee ens 


i shall et once say that this: nonsense has not endured,- . 
foe antique order understood how to realize the absolute ace © 
cord of purpose and form in compositions,: less sublime in ; 
style,. freed from a restraining tradition, or rather later kne 
how to find logical arrangements demanded by the BSONaS stone. 


by 


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et0x “Soret Foon et ocijauaiznos mebocw sort taf, 
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cp yelled ‘as Sev tesant® 602 ovocs 2tetiii telease 
 yaporuooes 10 ahothiuon MeGdsth dae: .eveade wa (yd Lenwots 
tees cn phates Yseniine aa ealgs ai o4 eidiaedgni et cf 
FAGRSI0GCTG Bit Sevetsds adzog”ae sido eesnmir” 
Wittens? dé ta webaste to {36° ao negesed ta 
Edoewd end: seteotbat qices lo bnitehi Leolsvze 
estas fatinse add Sep an flairan si . 


on ey 


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— fsjuas tfeds 27 Moire 
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ae {~bebeen BE e108: Botddon pécliti.eioste « 
éomou ceeaeedl doe ret Rotae gene ert ed of exoo I. 
a ee hol ero gpedtifats 
t ean. te eaiahtanne ett -woad) woXs) 
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173 
When I. treat, ceilings this evolution will be shown.: 
It. may be added as truly marvelous to have made that borro’ 
ins from wooden construction {he most. monumental expression ~ 
ever realized in stone or marble.; 
fhe Doric column is without. base, diminished upwards but no 
absolutely conical,: for its shaft has a slightly curved entas 
sis. It. has twenty shallow flutes.; lts construction is by 
drums with very fine joints,: in courses as high as. possible.; 
The capital surmountins it is composed of some: very small 
annular fillets above the flutes,: of an accented echinus,« 
erowned by an abacus,: and without, mouldings or recesses.) 
It is impossible to. imagine an entirety better. exoressing 
firmness of the support.: Whatever its proportions,: stumpy as 
at. Peastun (Fasg.; 226),. or slender as at Pompeii: (Fig.; 237),« 
the vertical flutins clearly indicates the function of the sh 
By its masculine simplicity,: the capital strongly accents. its 
function of a support for the entablature,: and the nudity of 
the abacus even increases this character of strensth.; In that. 
magnificent, work of architecture are very few elenents, but, 
such is their truth and harmony,: that no person can with 
propriety omit or add a single thins.: 
Thus it is in perfect, and should be so; the character of 
Grecian art.) ape 
The architrave is as admirable in its simplicity as lintel; 
@ stone extendins from one eobumn to another 1S ee 
is smooth on bottom and sides,: slishtly ino) tae in 
@ Simple fillet; nothing more is needed. 
I come to the frieze,. which is most, characteristic in Dorie 
architecture. be mar 
You know its arrangement. with trislyphs separated by metopes 
Like the column,: the triglyph has the character of a@ support 
accented also by its: channels;.the metope is: a simple filling 
often decorated by sculptures or paihtings): Us aaa bearin: 
a cornice, i 
This is the place to expl athe the origin of the Doric entab= 
lature, as it appears fron studying the scientific e essays to 
which it gave o¢casion,: while remaining an architect,: which 
is the best. means of reasoning sanely in architecture,; 
Here the imitation of wood seems dJenonstrated,. and that, has 
been frequently said before. But, the current explanation,: 
repeated in all the commentaries,: is that the triglyphs recall 


ay 
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ARO: ac Leet gried beeaec esdeesd 
1 ' joan asia peyote 


174 
the ends of the eeilins beams. This explanation is found in 
Hittorf and in Reynaud,: and has always shocked melfis.; 238).; 
How to indicate the ends of beams,: that do not, exist,: and at. 
@ level below that of the ceilings? If the construction of 
wooden entablatures had comprised beams at, the level later 
occupied by the trislyphs,: be assured that. the construction 
of stone entablatures would have retained its beams at the 
same level, for nothins would be. casier.; On the contrary,: 
stone ceilings higher than the triglyphs can be nothing but, 
the faithful representations of an earlier arrangement,: that. 
also placed the wooden ceilings at the same higher level.,; 

Then studying this question as an architect, I reach a hy= 
pothesis more closely approximatins the reality. 
To understand the frieze of the Doric order,: omit. the col~ 
uan and return to the wall.; When the architrave is: once set,« 
the wall is reconstituted; This is then a course in stone, 
whether an architrave borne by. columns or the last, course: of 
a solid wall.: . 
Now by a bit, of 6asy pedantry,: question Huripides.: He ad= 
vises Orestes by Pylades to enter the Temple of Daana by pass 
ing between the trislyphs to carry off the statue of the god— 
dess,: and. then Orestes states that. he escaped in the same way 
Another person suspends a bleeding head between the trislyphs. 
When thieves enter a temple to steal,. they do not, make a 
difficult. climb to merely find themselves in an entirely open 
portico.; Consequently the openings or metopes through which iy 
Orestes could pass were made in the wall of the temple itself, 
which evidently had no lateral porticos. Then these metopes © 
were simoly windows lighting the temple,: for to not offend 
certain theories, the temple must have been lishted.: 

This was plainly the origin of the trislyphs and metopes.: 
The triglyph is a mullion,;.or if you prefer,: a post,: the 
metope being an opening, and when the entablature closes,: no _ 
longer the temple itself but e portico, lighting by the metoam 
pes no longer having a reason,: this openings was closed,: not 
by solid .masonry,: but by a sleb set. on edge,. an actual plank 
of marble or stone, decorated like a closed shutter or panels) 

And naturally the openings between mullions through which — 
Orestes passed beings beneath the esiling,: the brighyphs: and 
metopes were also beneath the ceilins,: 


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175. | 
Then and always the construction directs us,: but, it is nee 
ary to ascend a step to find it.: 
If such be indeed the primary arrangement, of the: Doric tem 
ple ~- and it appears demonstrated «= the formation of the 
Doric entablature is easily reconstructed,: always on condi- © 
tion of remaining an architect,: Let us then restore the temp. 
of Huripides., | . 
The architect, has erected a wall;.the masonry being comple: 
ted,: he passes to wood,: which furnishes the upper part of thi 
edifice,: the windows and carpentry.; It. is a small half tin- 
ber work raised on a wall.) | 
We place a low sill to receive the posts,: and prevent its 
displacement by fixing it, on the wall by anchors.) Now the 
low sill is the taenia,: coverings the architrave;. the anchors 
are the small fillets. above the drops,: which ars. nails or ~ 
pins.: On the wall are cut, gains A (Fig.) 239),: which receive © 
the transverse planks pinned to the plate,: preventing its dis. 
placement.: Note that. the drops recall the ancient pins,: that, 
in certain entablatures they were attached later and were of 
marble,: while the architrave is of: stone.: a 
The architect, then set. the low sill,: that made a regular 
platform of wood over the entire wall (Fis.; 240).; At, suitable 
small intervals,: he set. the posts of his little half timber ~ 
work (Fis.: 241).; These are triglyphs and between the posts % 
are openings.) Necessarily an angle post,: hence an angle tri-— 
Slyph,. which has caused many essayse) ie 
Then on thesecpostspcachish plate reteived thevraftersy-be- 
cause of the slope the wood is beveled and shows little heigh 
at the outside,: the plain straisht band extends above the ree 
turns of each trislyph.; This sill is hisher inside and could 
receive the ceilings by means of a projection or hollowe; 4 
Finally,: it supports the rafters,: set, closer than the posts 
these are the mutules with double the number of triglyphs,: a 
and these rafters themselves receive the inclined sheathing | 
of the roof pinned on them; hence the facia and drops beneat 
the mutules.; Then as covering are tiles with cover tiles, 
with an antefixa in terra cotte at the lower end of each cove 
er tilc. This perspective will make this hypothesis clear. 
(Fig.3. ) 242).: , g 
I do not know if I err,. but, all this appears clear and arch 


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| 176 


itectural to me.; 


This is the origin of Doric... It, is probable that during 
two centuries, these veriations were practised with more or 
less art; doubtless this half timber work had something ele- 
Sant, and decorative;. perhaps certain openings were closed by 
panels or shutters ornamented by paintings, the origin of 
sculptured metopes,.; 

Then according to the progress of the art of building andl 
after numerous fires,: wood was abandoned, and architects wer 
required to make of stone not. only the external walls of tem 
ples,: but. even ceilings,: framework and roofs.: Thus at, the — 
Parthenon and in other Dorie temples,: as well as the Propyle 
um, we see in marble not, only the entablature,: but the beans 
and soffits,: as well as all the compartments of ceiling,« pur 
lins,: tiles and cover tiles.) The prohibition of wood is eran 
dente} a a 
And that brings again a new digression.: I wish to me ar 
chitecturally a Doric temple like the Parthenon.; That; is-not 
mere historical curiosity; the Doric temple was the starting 
point, of all antigue architecture from which proceeds modern 
“architecture; now a conscious art, must know its origins; all 
that is connected and explains itself,: and therefore one 
knows how to outline for himself his own studies.) 

Let us extend the scope of our subjeet and. study the Dorie 
temple with reference to the Doric order alone,; 


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| 177 | | 
CHAPTER IV. DORIC TEMPLE AND DORIC ARCHITECTURE,; 
SUMMARY,: == Complementary demonstration of the imitatio 
of wood.: == Parthenon,: «= Exclusion of wood.; == Hypethral tem 
plese; =~ Truss unknown.) «- The. Doric at, Rome.j) =— Study of th 
Doric; the triglyph.; «= Angle column-; == Inclinations and 
CUrves.e: 


In the Doric entablature,: it. was scarcely necessary to pro 
the analogy of stone to the use of wood, (as explained to you 
but, I insist, on it.: 4 

feke the Parthenon for comparison; there the arechitrave is” 
inclined while the frieze is vertical,: because the architrave 
is the last, course of the wall,: and this wall must be inclin 
ed,: like almost, all ancient, walls.; § 

fhe trisglyph is vertical,: as a post. should be; there is an 
ansSle trislyph,: es there must necessarily be an angle post; i 
half timber work.; For section,: the trisSlyph has a square hor 
izgontal section,: but, does not have the entire thickness: of — 
the frieze.) | Ce 


a ee 


As for the particular arrangement, of the drops,‘ no plausi= 
ble explanation occurs,: except: assuming a tradition of trans 
verse planks and the sill of the half: timber work.; | 

The metopes are mersly a slab set, in grooves,: so carefully. 
that. the English could remove them only by breaking the edges 
of the trisglyph,: which held them in a groove; evidently a "| 
dition of the. open metopes.; 

Above the triglyphgextends a band without. returns,: in ae - 
I find the tradition of the plate; the mutules evidently re 
call the rafters,: and their drops ure the nails or pins a 
fastening the sheathing of the roof.; | 

In the facia itself I see the tradition of a plank nati oan 
before the ends of the rafters,: whose mutnles by their low 
height, indicate the lower part; the final crow-beak moulding 
itself is nothings but the sheathing of vhs roof beneath the 
cover. tiles and antefixas.: 

Note further that, in the cornice is marked the slope ‘of th 
rafters,| 


The Doric ceiling is raised above the frieze,: a position 
only justified by the tradition mentioned,: and which makes 
this ceiling a restricted and mean composition for lack of # 
height,: always by imitation of: a wooden ccilins framed into | 


i, ate es ag ie 
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= Sas anitase iefd Yino beaitqnoo saiowexsat ect 
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+ bgatstn nisi weas jai cia { fot -.emse of 
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7 BRods 
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178 


the plate.: | 

Then gi¥e these timbers the proportions necessary for stor 
and you have the entablature of the Parthenon.’ 

But. I have said that, even the framework should be in stone 
This appears certain,: for if wood were rejected for the entab- 
latures and also the ceilings themselves,: would combustible 
carts be retained? Paccard,: in his restoration of the Parthe 
non,: fully proves,: that, it. had no trusses,: but, he assumes woot 
en purlims and rafters.) I have difficulty in believing that; © 
@ wooden framework ever supported these heavy roofs in marbl@ 
a framework so delicate,: that. the least shrinkage would have 
dislocated it. This is the weak side of this restoration., — 
The framework comprised only the purlins and ridge beams,and 


the same.) And I. demonstrate anew this truth,: incontesta= 
ble in my opinion.; 

It. is impossible to. understand the architecture of a given 
Doric temple,: unless one sees the origin of this starting 
point,: the absolute desire never to use wood.; 

Then how could an architect build a grand and complicated — 
edifice with stone alone, and without employing arches and © 
vaults? | 

By requiring from stone (or marble).the greatest, possible 
spans,: designing his plan in a fashion to permit these spans,) 
and leaving uncovered whatever exceeded the possible span of 
Stone.’ 

The last requirement was not, without inconvenisnces,: but =| 
the existence of the hypethral tenple cannot be. denied.; Vite 
ruvius says:+=— "The hypethral temple is otherwise similar to 
the dipteral temple (surrounded by porticos),: but in the in=) 
terior it presents ecdlumns in two tiers in height,: at a disse” 
tance from the walls for a passage,: like the portico of the 
peristyle; the middle is under the sky and without covering.® 
He adds that no example was at Rome,: but. was at. Athens.: 

Besides,: without, forcing the texts otherwise,: it is imposs 
ble for the hall of the Parthenon to have heen in complete ~ 
obscurity, or that, the Minerva of Phidias was hidden in a 
cave; whatever may be said,: temples were lighted, and it is m 
Certain that the doorway alone inside a double colonnade coult 
ensure that lishtins.; We have just seen that the small 


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179 
ancient. temples were lighted by the metopes;: we see on the 
Acropolis at. two s¥eps from the Parthenon,: that the Brechthei 
had windows as its arrangement, permitted.; At. the Parthenon,: 
on the contrary,: no opening permitted lightins,: unless thas 
was the open skylisht, of the hypethral temple.; 

All this has been frequently said,: but. I. add this remark,: 
that, for the temple to be incombustible,: the hypethral was 
required; this was a condition of the construction without, © 
wood,: an inevitable result of the evolution starting from tht 
temple of wood and ending in the temple of stone or of marbl 
Perhaps there had previously been hypethral temples,: and I ~ 
believe this the more,. since the truss does not. seen to have 
been known to Grecian architects,: restricted in their carpen - 
try. to. purlins and ridge beams.j Thus it; was a necessity for. ; 
architecture entirely in stones; . nd 

I seem to risk a paradox in assuming that, the wooden truss, 
the pivot, of all our modern carpentry,: was unknown to the 
Greeks. I know that. very numerous: restorations of ancient, te 
ples indicate it,: but, this is a modern conjecturs,: in ia a 
ion.: Without delaying in details,: I find an essentially Gre~ 
> Gian proof of the absence of trusses even in the composition — 
2 of several existing monuments.; The Greeks only made plans ~~ 

‘for what was reguirea byr their construction, Be-Lesslandrno 
more; every element, of their plans is indispensable to the 4 
construction for supporting something not; otherwise sup- | 
ported.; Now we see in these plans many points of support, ; 
without, any reason for existence,: if wooden trusses covered 7 
the plan.; . | 

And this is: well demonstrated by the plan of the Partheceill 
that I take from the restoration of Paccard,: but. trace it, dil 
ferently above the architraves,:. where the wells are reconsti= 
tited (Fig.; 248).; This very skilful errangement. of the plan © 
of the ground story,: that produces such beautiful monumental 
effects,: thus transformed into the plan of the upper work,: is 
it not marked by the final evidence of the systematic inten=— 
tion to not. exceed the possible spans of the beams,: and also” 
for the marble purlins ar ridge beams,: those superb Listouaa 
still in place with 19. 7 ft.-i spans at. the Propyleum? With. 
this plan,: all the spans in the work are less than 19. 967 Pte: 
those of the treasury alone approeching that. measures, 


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There is one monument that, demonstrates it; well,: the double 
portico called the Basilica of Paestum (Fig.: 244).; Here were 
perhaps not the same reasons causing the rejection of wood 
for the temples;.in any case,: why did Grecian architects,: for 
whom the useless did not; exist,: encumber the. middle of a por- 
tico by a row of columns,: if these columns had no necessary 
function in construction? Merely the ridge required the con- | 
struction;. not; knowing how to artificially support, it; in the 
air, they supported it; from the sground,: absolutely as in the 
ancient Swiss chalets (Fig.; 245),: such interesting types of 
primitive construction in wood,: where are always timbers in 
the axis beneath the ridge,: an actual ridge partition,: with 
ho reason for existence of the truss,; 

To show you fully the Grecian Doric order,: it is necessary 
for you to see its orisin,: and also this entire architectural 
evolution; wooden architecture first emploged for the upper 
parts of temples, then probably abandoned after frequent 
fires,: stone replacing wood; but, the traditions and: forms o 
wooden architecture being consecrated by veneration and retai 
ed by architects, perhaps by fear of the hemlock.; Then by a 
prodigy oB taste,: harmony and style,: this imitation of wood 
with the proportions necessary for stone became the noblest. 
element of the monumental architecture,: which was to soutnielll 
the art of all antiquity and also modern art, 4d 

Such is the Doric order.; Its proportions vary more than in 
the other: orders.; The column does not. have 4 diameters in ‘ 
height at; Gorinth (Fis.; 246),. but: more than n 8 1/2 at | at Cori’ ( Fis 
50) «; The marsin for desién is vast,: but. you “will only study 
with real benefit, this profoundly motived architecture,. if you 
know its origin and formation.; This caused me to emphasize 7 
the topic,: | ; 

It. is frequently said,: Grecian Doric and Roman Doris.) But! 
if by inadvertence I speak of Roman art,: this is a brief way) 
for expeessing Grecian art. as practised at Rome.; There were © 
no Roman architects,: at. least, for a long time; but between 
the Parthenon and the Theatre of Marcellus are oe 
that are always manifest,: 

At; Rome is first, found the Doric of the Tabularium (Pig.; 
247),: very similar; to the Doric of Greece; then the Theatre © 
of Marcellus (Fig.; 45),: that, of the Colosseum and some others 


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181 
‘\Bhe three orders mentioned have engaged columns.; As an ordé 
of pilasters,: I can mention the tomb of Bibulus.: 

Little by little,: the Doric order loses its: severity,: and 
its originality. The capital no longer has its strensgth,: its 
abacus is moulded,: and an astragel separates the shaft from 
the capital; the column itself no longer expands into a monus 
mental support,.: The flutes vanish or are modified, + and the 
base appears.) The mutules become: horizontsal,: and the architec 
are detracts from its character as a lintel.; Construction 
is. itself lost, to view.; 

But the architecture is less majestic and mors easy,: and if 
the monuments of Rome of the emperors,: the Renaissance found 
the types of the Doric order in which,: more than in the oth= 
ers, its genius appeared with Bramante,: Perugzi,: Sangallo,: bi 
gorio,: Philibert, Delorme,: Jean Bullant,: etec.; 

fhis I had totsay -of the Doric;. it. is: nothins,;: if you ex= @ 
pect from me a Bareme or a Visnola,: recipes for: cd ch : 
or of modules.i 1. do not. adhere to them =~ and there are none, 

There are averages, very differeht from absolute rules,: and 
especially are beautiful examples.; Between Peestum,: the Pare” 
thenon,: Cori,: Pompeii and Marcellus in antiguity;- Palace Mase 
simi. (Figs.) 248,: 249), Palace Farnese,: Ecouen,: the: Louvre,: Se 
Sulpice and Palace of Justice in modern times (Fis.: 39),: you — 
have the choice of admirable types; know how to select, accoHd 
ing to the character of the edifice and the requirements of: § 
your construction.; All is in that.) k 

{I do not, wish to leave this subject. without showing you the 
true key to the. study of the Doric orders as well.as their 
difficulty. With some exceptions,: the Dorie order is charac= 
terized by its trislyphs,: which have finally become bmt, an ~ 
ornament, on the friexe,: though a capital and inflexible orna= 
ment.; By its regular spacing,: the trislyph is for a Doric com 
position just as beating time is to a musical composition; 1 
distence between exes must be an aliquot part of that between 
the axes of the columns, and in returns,: whether the angles ~ 
are convex or reentrant,: or in extended architecture,: the dee 
sign must always be controlled by the possible arrangement ¢ 
the triglyphs.: 
Thus at. the iene fuel of Athens, (Fig.: 250),: the aaa in= 
tercolumniation having to be of excsptional width, « ‘being the 


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182 
central passage,: this excess of width cannot, be arbitrary,: 
for the number. of triglyphs determines it;: while the other: 
columns are distant by twice the distance between axes of 
triglyphs,: the former. has thrice this; there is here a numer: 
icel law of proportion,: not; imposed on any order other than 
the Doric.; | 

But. particularly with regard to the angle columns is appar 
ent, the result of the trislyph.; 

In all colonnades of the Grecian Doric order,: temples or 
propyleums,( the anglw column is a little larger than the oth 
ers (about; 1/40),: and it is sensibly closer.; This irregular- 
ity has a fine effect,: Siving to the angle of the: edifice tk 
strength always necessary for the appearance; observe how 
this strength is lacking where this difference in the interet 
lumniations does not. exist or is too small,: for example at th 
Madeleine,: where the angle: column viewed obliquely and agains 
the air appears isolated and thin for its functions; 

This magnificent, artistic result, obtained by Doric archites 
ture is not, an esthetic conception created by it;. for were ; 
this so,: the architects almost at, the same time as the Parthe 
non,: who. composed the Ionic: temples of the Acropolis would : 
have obeyed the same principle of appearance,: and later it 
would be found in Corinthian temples; if the angle intercolum 
niation there be a little less,: it, is scarcely sensible,« . 
while this difference is so clearly expressed in the Doric,: 

This is because in the Doric,: it is a mathematical result 7 
of the arrangement. of the triglyphs.: It, is the last term of 
a, syllogism,: whose premises are the wooden corner post,: then 
the angle trislyph of stone,; The trislyph being at the angle 
and narrower than the column,: cannot, have the same: axis as © 
this; the regularity being above in the: frieze,: the intercol- 
umniation cannot be regular.; The entire explanation of the | 
angle intercolumniation is this (Fig.: 251).; q 

I must finelly mention this peculiarity of Doric architects 
ure,: the inclination of all its elements.) Neither. verticals | 
nor horizontals are found; horizontal surfaces are curved,: — 
and vertical surfaces are inclined in the sense of the pyra= 
mid.; Thus the steps are higher in the middle than at the ends 
the line of the capitals and architraves is curved,: the entab 
lature is curved in height. and not; in plan,.; These: refinements 


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183 : 
with prodigious precision escape the eye, but; certainly aval 


much in the impression produced by the monument.; To obtain 
an idea of this,: consult, Penrose's book on the a oy an 
you will be amazed.,,: 

Yet. this refinencne Gear a reason for its existence, : 
and this is always the pursuit of absolute perfection.) Assum 
a perfectly vertical wall behind the portico and a much dime 
inished column also perfectly vertical;; the space between wi 
be sensibly larger at, top than at, bottom,: contrary to the in 
stinctive logic of the. observer;. hence a bad effect, as in Fi 
252,: where the column is represented at, one side with vertin 
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whose inclination is slightly exaggerated for the demonstras 
tion.; Assume on the other hand an entablature perfectly hor= 
izontal; under the height, of the pediment,: that, ingreases fr 
ends to middle,: it; seems to bend dowhward at; its centre; a= 
gain a bad effect., The Greeks never condemned a bad effect,« 7 
but. always fought, it; to victory.; To obviate these imperfee= © 
tions, they did not fear to engage in a formidable struggle 7 
with unexpected difficulties.); In our. days, if the Parthenon © 
were to be identically built. again,: even if everything neces« 
sary were at, command,: such as money,: materials and time,: it, 
would not. succeed. Also anywhere in the most; perfect, things,: 
measurement, gives differences; for example, one admires the © 
execution of a colonnade where diameters do. not; vary one per. 
cent;. on the pore OR OPS RE do not vary one per thousand,: — 
indeed do not, vary at. all. 

That, is what, were those artists and their arte; 

Let; us admire those monuments as they have remained to us 
(Pis.: 253), but. know how to. respect. them enough to forbid u 
to. pretend to build them again,: 


an acne BTEC! ae. av ‘EPIRA 
2900 ae SO abeee ehunis ~~ athead om el BABY UG 
sad weau lov ae ae tain tigso is S1sh2 e205 ~~ 
Meee! oe se smooidnog 76 ehaitied -- 
og ome wha asek Peiter aailadaya edt wor easce 
be do 30 ssote etd a606 ods ei ebni' stro ese aio ne 
mt bus: oder aed te Bhin?: edd widn te eda-ats. fSts 
ie ie: bia.  asathbset mpd So ehned sd2leaigeo.ots ‘Ye 
aren en os anges ge Bteb10) Cloned Sus cisod-eds noewiet 
| se Orso eds sgqedseq iacoaate tits otadte: vi sued 
anee Gee eoatek mort oddol sis One astiqyze mov: 
yorteFAib sia eyaule bus ATSHRL TSO Jens ) goat sie 
I ti ed tebt0 steed eds Vi iet2ed baa bain ic 
eng et venss200% to Ysesi ee Hn ie vighiads saizes 2g 
phge (Boeth Seetore os Sedserc. ance Sito ods 
pMRaERia® .01100 of@ 2224 wehia: oical fs 849 
3 BtSo Gmoe colkis yeqedie® Yeisitoodidors 
wieh ed¢ au) dose) xi pire tathd Jsehips 
ai iwode- yitselo of : 2s what eaofo, to 
et od titia heptet 30 haan podetor- 
manetada toboow & to bseocxoo feurt gs 


SAY oa See 
i 4a) 


P ame saidpard vine Okt SESH SMBS as nc eet gt ERS 


« 


cee $ agent ei Sainigora vend yee 
he - 


et ae 


Rees ag wet. (SUS epenae ls. Sas ode i Heksv ib gduyer 
ae at gene dda adie ,OfSd1 bedet ronen aie tae od 
kas? Sag eve @y Penwae i : 


out so velgast edd 70. dead aad sloste2sed “1 


: os Lectin. Ao bas ccbaanie may 3S eeindel e242. 76 
ae Seduottass ite woating at Soaere 120 eine 
Fe ve bedeainys ¢ 2k 3 Fate aif. .comsot ef P ot 
rs sae (lstiees ea3°%0. cua tdee efs eariecss Yidoet 
sds aes Stes noiddon undies (20 whit at ites 
ern iy at. vag’ byes biter J taden eit geended infos, 
| . ‘devant fedidcco #42 bas deta hadulT eas 
ole gusudbise log udi bedatgoeb YLdoit bast 
ae sgtbbisow {Ls eobteed {.bebioe cox 
bers ues ieee oe olga swezed ond 


184 
CHAPTER V,; THE IONIC ORDER,; 


SUMMARY,; -— Origin; =— Simple Terniiere can Decorated Ionia. 
-~- Base,: shaft and capital.) =» Angle volute.: #- Entablature., 
~« Ceilings of porticos,: “ 


- a 
OS Se Aa 


I. spare you the symbolism,: that, sees man in the Doric,: wom= 
an in the: Ionic,: finds in the base the shoes of the young © 
Sirl,: in the: flutes the folds of her: robe, and in the volutes 
of the capital the bands of her headdress.;  . x 

Between the Doric and lonic orders at the origins were evi 
dently ethnic differences;: perhaps the Doric proceeds rather 
from Egyptian and the Iontéc from Asian.: But. especially is: itg 
the fact,: that. everywhere and always: are different, aspiration 
of mind -eand taste; if the Doric order be incomparable in ex- | 
pressing strength and majesty of construction,: proud of itsel 
the Ionic seems created to express grace and refined elegance 

Did the: Ionic order,: like the Doric,: orisSinate in wooden 


architecture? Perhaps,: since some of its frequent: elements 
sugsest that orisin,: such as the dentils,:. the evident trace 
of close joints,: so clearly shown in the Lycian tombs.) The 
volutes themselves indeed might, be the tradition of a eapital 
at. first, composed of a wooden shaft; and two kinds of round | 
brackets.; But these are only hypotheses,: and it. is best to 
sui that. ore is sinse si ; 


ae and the decorated Fon seuy. Av) Athens are Ponte ‘re Corre 
instructive examples.) . 

I term simple Ionic that of the: Temple of Nike: Apteros (Pig 
254) and of the Propyleun (Fig.; 255);. decorated Tonic is that, 
of the Temples of: Erechtheum and of Minerva Polias (Fig.; 256 
This difference is particularly manifested in the capitals.; 
in the former,: the shaft is terminated by an astragal and di. 
rectly receives the echinus of the capital,: the plan reprodu 
ced in Fig.; 257 being nothing more: than the outline of the 
joint between the shaft, and capital.; In the latter,: between 
the fluted shaft and the capital is an intermediate space,: a 
band richly decorated by palmatiums,: whose function is quite 
undecided.; Besides,. all mouldings are much more ornamented, : 
the bases themselves being sculptured.) 


dette Gad: Yo blithe es sae ies tri 
y seeuthten adivto eeontots ereitxs 843 90 gu 
pare os w aed evevls. cgeloo Sfaod. oxi 
Btea bd Vem Si tod -pbelvev gites4y eta eolth 
sis.  et60d | eead ed? pron 642 « catitns edd vastons 
er ; fae setseoetor apotneaal ag-at exst?.gnitdoT ze 
pO OR eds oF emiginga Jedd eesd ong To ine 
i \ bedered Bf isda edd Yedssy Io \ naw loo eds 
A S43 Uisnevosen0> Ge 20) godsed bus Gov.é6¢ sinh 
ee, fees (g@igie edt Qo disq 2 wrot etiod teal 
$ asviecet foatdw ubetdaroseb to aielq+,fdniic 
oF eres o92 tra. to tepenies 4Ssuel %o seed 
baer F216 
sper bas hein? doan sents aw eeesd er 
oh RR ae baa seclonts eff tedeoi! 
‘dda gig 9m eno? vextinus > ww iiioed. 
a Ad to peks-Aoeatics evxen fil 
maine yitesth etendo:.sese tegi, of 
md to svodé-yileiceges e1s Nope rat 
er yt eat aie peuned Yo efnweT cal 
abineny dad vo tedtie) bsvatonel dour 


eye Le rE fotiw Oy, sevott {agnox tron Asoipolii 
< ss ests | bavotd: ede ed gdtmixeta ads Ge Pes 
ae @iteqil te RS (nit) eomsc Yo siqaet 
faeapaTt ens Sarl  oéisde sds It seat toro! 
oe le et mae tye {8d8" p34) éuseics Js sos 


ets ioct Maabtt peo: ames sont 
y ifaw noe: ‘bag §bebivibdua: « seas; ois Bad 

gc Moy Th, Berbssrocki Ssisted, Be 
gadr et ideas Sid dud yeesa obtad 
Lgcges atsfibeesio. sts tna ydets 
mere. ae4 Wedd Lietcez biSOO ow TE 
eshage — biel eins aevevelt 


we ' ‘ ee 


A) e003 $s eoreni Yo eigudfedt ao sic 


coe ae Sceeed s aed anotoo 


i ee i * bchies 


Pee TS 


185. 

Preference may be given to one or the other; what I wish t 
indicate is,: that inscthe Ionic order also are expressions ve 
different from the simplicity of the order of the proportion 
up to the extreme richness of its neighbors.) _ 

fhe lonic column always has a purely circular base; the pr 
files are greatly varied,: but it may be said that the more 
ancient the edifigée,: the more the base bears the character o 
a footing.) There is an ingenious explanation of the arransge- 
ment of the base,: that conforms to the more ancient examples 
the column,: or. rather the shaft, is termimated by two astraq 
Sals at, top and bottom (Fig.: 258);. consequently the fillet a 
lower torus form a part of the shaft,. the base being only th 
olinth,: plain or decorated,: which receives this torus; the 
base or lower astragal of Cori. appears to confirm this bitog 
esis.: 

The bases are further much varied and frequently very comp 
licated,.: The simplest end purest those ofcAthenian arch 
itecture,: such as those of the reaslieef Rheapesee of 
Minerva Polias,: or that, of the Propyleum,: that you have al 
SO just seen. Others sgreatly enlarge the bearing of thecol~ 
umn, such are especially those of the internal columns of 
the Temple of Bassae (Fig.: 159);. finally,: there are some ver 
much decorated,: either by the quantity of mouldings,: foe exai 
ole on the Temple of Minerva at Priene (Fig.; 260), or by qui 
illogical horigontal flutes,: by which it. is necessary to ree 
osnize that proximity to the ground,: like the bases of the ‘ 
Temple of Samos (Fig.: 261),. or finally by sculptures on the. 
lower. part of the shaft,: like the fragment, from the Artemes= 
ion at Ephesus (Fig.: 262),: which is: also rather a part. of th 
column than a base,: ) | 

Since some love blassifications greatly,: the Ionic order 7 
has also been subdivided,: and you will sometimes be treated 
as belated ignoramuses,.if you confound the Ionic with the © 
Attic base; but the truth is that in Greek art is great va-) 
riety, and the classifiers might amuse themselves far more, / 
if we could see. all that has disappeared.:- a8 8 , 

However this may be, the Ionic base of the best epochs doe 
present those concave profiles,: that contradict even the pur: 
pose of a base. 


The shaft, is much less diminished and is thinner than in | 


Pcr ob BS ged it bas: sebt0 Sito at 
“Rasy end hpi isitaze. eat 


tod tal ads Luisi yada 28h 2at6ve% Teqqe ae 
“me bosie: ut ponadtoga! jaerh eved éetolov- afi 
é “S22 gi fataiatd 
yibaé os ney Loo enc edi o% eovig deom{s aidt we 9g 
me Sng ss98t Aegioaing’ ows e%2 evens wei 55 3 
To aw eas Rue bevresss¢ (0S +814) leiiaso Lisuels 
eG. 2 gh (Lion aids “‘getardanoaeh bus eigtia coer. et 
"paves } neve et fatigee dine! ed: io noidteogmoo 18ie 
edi anu de ead a0% agie0eb ai aetsivuoftrsLb sugitse 
Petatiaac eid iis gotuteed » veltas ne Sarat opis 
sv ieonao gdoeaidors ne tsei8 | ~eeset sien woie od 
i Fmt. Svacues . cioiss ixe ete io #ewnoe .oduloy eft 
epante he shoe a8 pstaconen S een eitl. i0toe 
re 2 . eJiBlesqrs 
Paodnua ilesa s eis eeu si¢dd meat 
“a evad binow gi i muists us to ansnieo 
bin Indiqes Staol: yrsgibto 643 yolane 
§ iedigso eft of bef aens sidl «sees? 
f qd ow doide So .aelinte? yliostsed o74 
Ae Bs Poehe Sar 8a jitedqaod de Bais 
maa od 6. beaagmen eref si etsinic igdas ot 
modg inde, vd badesoash So fisiaq ioitis ...seit? 
gst Eblos> eld to ylexidne teomis sit ecexoos soins 
eu Mo yitsn ent.esd Tepusl of svaiiiaors adit 
Be eh a ge tbivis. efestto digits eteseesg gi ieveadd 
vegadxe4 2,taddo dose facyed: gai Joetorg yisdpiis 
ibtaos f nant . sebasod io Ratgsyoo's io notsibaid.s 
ae i’ twetit? : basoseko. setovest § vilsvenes » pote 
eed et #a  (nielg fon si.exeixt ead weds 
tifxs ragit) wood sdoaxt end-to deft ateiles  n2é 
ra, ia fd gissen to.2i J] :.sasmekoata68 fat 
en ogida. Kite vTas Seites ni aeiwhtd. e416 
seneeay eid» snaisA Yo seotiithe 262° 2? 
ee cag¢senad. tuo bewollod yisaorts 
edai stosion ods to “Paiddvowebar ods ni suc 
© Abeno pt ybast is gatbiaom. dged~woro 


byte. a Rerncsc ele amoe ol 


Var * 
oa 4 ’ : ‘ 
{s oi ; , Me We 5 :% Cam 
‘She = = <t > ~ Le ok AG As“ n > ft : 3 7 
; Ww 2 2 mls : ie ae, ee . es 1 eae! 
\ nivk = . Yb _" “ ys A 
i A. 3 oh 1 ee a be . ‘: +” 
ar ’ amb 
« 12 s at al 
Ee | a ste D i ae Coan 


on an es es 
meta = boll Oe ae eh ws mars 


186 

the Doric order,: and it. has 24 deeper flutes separated: by eit 

The capital presents the very strong composition known to 
you;. above the echinus the abacus curves in volutes,: except, 
the upper reverse ogee, that forns the bed for the architrav 
fhe volutes have great, impobtance in Grecian fonic,: but. late; 
diminish in size.; 

fhis almost, gives to the Ionic column an individual charac. 
ter; but, there are two principal faces and two lateral sides; 
a small capital (Fig.) 263) preserved in the Museum of Athens 
is extremely simple and demonstrates this well.) This partic- 
ular composition of the Ionic Capital is even the cause of 
serious difficulties in design for the returns.) When the por- 
tico forms an ansgle,: desiring all the. Gapitals of the sides 
to show their faces,: Grecian architects conceived the an« 
Sle volute,: convex on the exterior,: concave in the inter= 
ior.; This was a necessity,: but: must. be regarded as only an 
expediente} 

when there was oaly a small number of columns, like the fot 
clue: of an hci oo rouge hs kab aimee impossible te 


| 
i 
‘| 
¥ 
" 


f 
Rose. ae, fies Leda the eas san sithofoual angle waillaies : 
and perfectly Sern of which we have so many pretty exam 
ples at. PompeiilFig.: 264),- 

The astro 8k here Gienased of the architrave,: of a . 
frieze, either plain or decorated by sculptures,. and a corm 
hice consisting almost, entirely of the facias; . a 

the architrave no longer has the unity of the Doric arbhi-~. 
trave; it. presents slight; offsets dividing it into three part 
slightly projecting beyond each other.; Perhaps this may be 
& tradition of a coverings of boards; Then a moulding erowns. 
it,: generally a reverse ogee and fillet; . = 

When the frieze is not. plain,. it is decorated by sculptures 
in relief, That of the Erechtheum (Fig.; 265) exhibits a spec= 
ial arrangement. It is of nearly black stone,: and: set; in it, 
are fisures in relief carved in white marble,: perhaps painte 

On the edifices of Athens,: the cornice comprises a §eison 
strongly hollowed out beneath;. below are delicate mouldings . 
cut in the undercutting of the Seison,: at the top beings a 
crow-beak mouldins,: already mentioned,: 

In some Grecian monuments,: as at. Olympia, Priene in Asia - | 


yer otbns’ “Bay ay ‘ae flew Ba lane ate) aa 
$i0a BP Seintas efF 40 asedwen aeol eft Yo slitosg 
« | seettauet she yd Sesiasjontsie Ylieteeqes si ons 
Anglian ei¢ to fuses tge edd. cot cA 

St panes ‘s8Edenosoigesi ef 22 Waolitourtaccs 
ott ed # puiyasose seed - 1a0%s ts tio edd Be dget aoi?¢ 
witiies 2 edd rio BIetiss 6h) Ecidtogauve Sas ..exatat edd 
fhe od? | abhtsi08 eof io Jdgien eid es anifnogess 
a 3 Wes yiseetottine e428 (fo 4.9i92 mosleqord 
Ae eaods Be O8Be (Siemeonsise Iptissesed ets 
ols nt metied Gait iis ese [liv vol ’secei(idoos! 
Buide t see bre flss ‘eke Yo ei2e5 totselg eis 
5 Mee * bes ditwe 5Se7 bivoie yoy dada “to vi 
xc ancy ‘ead Yo Ys ci deve jon evan I. astiun’! 

fin % shor At -.sonsedlanch eid eonte ton ydinpténe 
| ¥sh Sitsad hi dial iene Ginol ods svewla af tf 
Bias 08 


Tye 


peenna se even vice 


187 


Minor. (Fig,; 266), as well as on the Pandroseum at Athens, th 
profile of the lower members of the cornice is more  importan 
and is especially characterized by the dentils,; 
As for the agreement of the entablature with the internal | 
construction,: it, is irreproachable.; Beams of monumental sec~ 
tion rest. on the architraves,: these occupying the: height. of 
the frieze,: and supporting the coffers of the ceiling,: cor- 
responding to the height of the cornice,.; The ceilings of the 
Propyleum (Fisg.; 267) are sufficiently preserved to show well 
this beautiful arrangement,: same as those of the Temple of | 
Erechtheus.; You. will see all that, better in the books or in 
the plaster casts of the galleries.) 1 Gan only comment, brief 
ly on what. you should read with Cares] ; , 
Further,: I have not much to say of the Ionic order in Roma 
antiguity nor since the Renaissance,; Hith some variations,: 
it. is always: the Ionic order, and if taste may vary infinite 
ly,: theory never changes.; . 


ie 


yaa carateco Hey 040 B6GaReO 
) £1 ge a Pa tossed]: adi 1 ETRABSUS 
Pred Ladaeasn: : oe eres MO? fal mate a ent iieiad «* 
~~ ce caus leet tor Epes tee fae hae ae fe tae 
vba rae at ee Pg ae me ete baie Si, ee Oe hes Les 
r _c opts psy She See: er peg eat & (4 
a “Ewen eisai Yge tone wt es fie 7 Es bleeds %o2 
ice iad lees oye aeRO eds nk lkdape oc ou FGGE a Bowc [ral 
Py gaix saul: Tiseae 2ci meonss ba fe sdaasc ts 6.8) 
Peahweiuseloce t0.<dh0e 0) ob tsides° Fences 
+536 Baknnised eht ee: biwe 3 gpiaseqine (nhboe ots 
Deri ef toons mete cea licis’ Gretg ogi ds dane 
rs “eupidne Ghd Ge Wares BIAS Bois locas hl ode5 
hee o een age les dh Beeot ens dedi (aeRss.\: 
Raia <3) ate SET: aeis sani Cte an Bae ae 
5 - hie 22 wee -od gah avert re Rig f, 3S 
xf HOES SER pat OP OT apt OTS. 
, ‘GOs age, Base odour 5 On See 
iis Rc raat dak od ot Rieti Yee. Fh Aa 
otneuehyests: Sed eae tae wes “e8) ah 
a Ae xt ee: Boe anjuwtiones. ri lade 283 pense 
- 248 ‘ Fpl OG, Be pea lt quan. slic lous cgus 12d hges 
Tine cisod Sid Th eeAdrbe ni Set ghodsse lane 
qomanpe ‘qenngl On @SRR Bioade Gs Sns hen 2a 
ihe tit fedizora! jseletig “36-4024. eNaonce ro 
£ eds of ‘peveei ease Loyo. wot 8 hedosgis eh Lien 
Etat tayo \aexs fenogelh pee Seui Serta ett 13 
’ 2" etni ved fey" pavers seifines fos Tense 
at leolees #08 efi Mkeletdac Bd? pov Red 
| c i vegs: syed ‘gewinebiy- To $60 
nd eat dgootd Weee oo ot ff 
oe ‘adie, yaks pened Weer; ocd KopR sed 
dd awed Tey Meanco 150) ‘eh BALasbe 
of ast [tier PRs (pabacs SAT FO ro RBG 
RS chs ioe mpaas ees 
a ete Stkest ae: adiapeet joa these 
a. hana ae Rae yeni 


re) 


188 
CHAPTER Vi.. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER,,; ‘age. Sane 
SUMMARY,; «= ThE: QHBSEE SPER 5 Capital.j -- Varied exempl 
~- Entablature.; «- Modillions.; -- Monumentel, Corinthian.; ==" 


Caprice. and el CE.) = Thatta. their: design.) -« Varieties: 
1 


_ The Corinthian order: was at, first, exceptional and. reserved 
for little structures in ancient, Greece,: but, became the most 

employed. and most, monumental in the: Roman _ epochs Bomammn 
its ornamental richness,: its easily theatrical appearance,: 
responded: better to the state of society under the rule of 


the Roman emperors.: I. said at; the beginning. of this course,: § 
that, the. grand architect. of an epoch is its social and moral 
state.; In applyins this truth to the antique orders,: I frank 
ly state,: that, the Doric is the. republican Ba and. 5a, Co. 
ritth ea is the imperial order.; 5 ee ele § 

Yet. it: is interesting to see it, at, its origin in the archi 
tecture of Greece,; The best, known example is the Choragic ~ 
Monument, of Lysiorates (Piés.: 268,: 269).; Excepting the capim 
tal,: it. may be said to be entirely an Ionic: order,; | 

As for the capital,: its arrangement, is always nearly the 
same; the shaft terminates with an astrasal,. above which the 
capital essentially comprises a bell,: a surface of revolution 
analagous to the echinus of the Doric and lonic capitals bat, 
hisher,. and an abacus here no lonser square, but, limited by — 
four concave ares of circles, ‘inscribed in a square.; To the 

bell is attached a row of large leaves to the number of eish 
in the orincipal and diagonal axes,‘ against, which rest eight 
other. and smaller leaves on the intermediate axes,: all sprin 
ing from the astragal.: The most, typical is perhaps that, od ~ 
the Tholos of Epidauras,: where the foliage allows the curve 
of the bell to be seen through its openings (Fig,- 270).; E 

Between the great. leaves spring eisht scrolled stems sup- 
porting the four corner volutes,: that sustain the éreat. pros 
jection of the abacus,: as: well as middle volutes,. cae ere 
purely ornanental.; 

I shall not. describe in detail these capitals,: but observ 
beautiful examples;. I limit, myself to show you its goncrally 
Gomposition by a trace of the plan .(Fis 271),. taken from the 
Temple of Mars the Avenger,: mentioned before (Piss.: 4,: 5). 


he Let 


g ettd Bonsetebeo bian of pieieieckhbal ek ed 
| “ged: raigiioss ne tdintsed B Math vison? 
dma nom} ee od. Thnisienes aeons ifs natsgeoxe sut 
eenidegor me Binesenite: eiinieg ftoddy .pidies 
incisedind: ettveen.cod*s #Y walle donséo en0ss 
> nk ddguce ed ed elebor fearas viineuper? ‘sad 
deol ent <.beson od od wetosb ss st es66T ».eid 
v Estas Wort Seon ecdd péaidor ivun ene cake 
Sd edd Baud bee snitsecis® nord (ES .n2t) hen 
id ydnadetees 61608 Hore cusiivoe sg svsi»,eroh Js 
eth 30 Blaset ed3 nobtitaes enw te socus Isiveghi ens 
‘Apitéwecd Jzon od3 gnome sat 928% snideved bra 
) dene S yids! 38 aedtqut Yo-siqnel adj <to dsh¥ bod 
rie * -Sactk sni® 6 feoro? add cs ved 
q 5 > SMiradbon Suspskere > ‘Ovi PMAkee > es eho 
Pye. Crook ghee. PP Seb Cite ~ seman Soohown i+ wets 
oun scenes. ay whbne ooh ieldaoes tok -.buche 
| Fduy® So oidoet eit vewtcdy deurcih oF 
bt eit: bee woboor Se aldast Belles 
SA gd! ogaduahy wot) Set. Seyoudo wil 
pel ett gorhe wd Cagnhkhrunse dc o peal 
en fateh a ."volo is voided” 


ae Eiedt ico (one Sitio nnd KE seen 0d paieny 
Wttroo fsdtioss edd kuin ivedosrsis neato ia sett 

or lex ioedidoxs ee? eindeidaioe sis GhLS 
“saga ond sherndégivoe yilevene? euntbivons yd beset 
“Jove lomeT ons fO.9BS + weerutqlsoe fartoyd bes 
is eta eyed i’ ‘oe TA’. eRe 5th 3 easisd dese eves 
pda :jisteed (8s evisnti To éfqnet edt es fisve 
40 eieuet sid to dehs ylianit vo:.emok ds 
“BE besevimeoses ‘ef eeandois Od eneix sgC0Ts 


eo y (yao hada et? Sts 


‘eomeisso¢e Ot shee aie koe dsetdon, ent 
as. iutiquacd edi yino yietsnodtoten +seunowh 
Pav -titte fieine edd mot? 
canals cms setddntsod al . 


eres Hex eotnaind Fo vedd no roo (ENS iT) 


pra feerover edd ovee. osnens 


189 

It is: indispensable to well understand this plan in order 
correctly draw a Corinthian capital.; But, remember that. with= 
out, exception all those remaining to us from antiquity are ii 
marble, which permits: refinements -- sometimes abused =~ tha 
stone cannot. allow. Yet. a too servile imitation of the antig 
has: frequently caused models to be sought, in capitals of mar 
ble.; There is: a danger to. be noted.; The most, ancient. are. 
also. the most, robust;. thus those from Assizi. (Fig.: 272),: Ti- 
voli. (Fis.: 273),: from Palestrina and from the temple of Vest: 
at. Rome,: have a sculpture much more resistant, than those of 
the imperial epoch at the Pantheon, the Temple of Antonine 
and Faustina,: ete.) Yet among the most, beautiful must be ei- 
ted that. of the Temple of Jupiter: Stator,: a cast. of which yo 
have ab. the School of Fine Arts.: * 

* Note. In deatoning antique nonunents,: Li abwaysa employ 
their efasateatl manos Seve Se ee 2 ee deve 

atood./ Sov exampte,: Ji am awave that votumes have been written 
to divseusy whether the SJenble of " aes atator" itunes be 
catted Semate of "Cactor and Potlua" or "Graceostacsie",:« ete. i 
Gs. always,. Lar from giving Light, these discussions have bro ) 
duced obseurity.: Bul ainee the Renatesance has always said 7 
"“uaiter dtator",: -- & do not know why -- ;- do ta Thin beau 
titut monunent naned in a muttitude of art booke;-onty by © 
continuing to give it thia nane may one know of what Bi abeak : 

The richness: characterizins the capital continues in geners= 


al in the entablature.: The architectural jrojections are sep» 
arated by mouldings generally sculptured; the friezes are cov 
ered by rich sculptures;: as: on the Temple of Vesta at. Tivoli) 
(Fis.: 273), or on that. of Antonine and Faustina, which you © 
have seen before (Fis.;52).; Also there are simpler ones,: 

such as the Temple of Minerva at, Assizi,: that, of the Pantheon 
at Rome, or finelly that, of the Temple of Jupiter Stator (Fig 
276),: where the richness is concentrated in the archibrave — 
and. the cornice,; 

Toe noblest, and grandest, in appearamce is that, of Mars thee 
Avenger; unfortunately only its beautiful aroha remaik 
from the entablature.; | 

In Corinthian cornices,: you find all the elements a 
antique mouldings,: the reversed ogee with its heart-leaves,: 
the quarter round with its eSgs,: the bead with its: pearls, 


tent: ato: ena? denied ‘S44 AS ky AEG ada 
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190 
the cyma with its palmatiums or: foliase.: lihat, further charae 
terizes: most; of its cornices is the modillion,: a kind of 
small console supportins the cornics.; You have laready seen 
examples,: notably with the cornice of the Temple of Concord. 
(Fis.; 13).; One of the most, beautiful examples of cornices so 
treated is that of the magnificent, portico of the Temple of © 
Jupiter Stator previously given (Fig.; 274),: and of which T. 
have mentioned a complete cast. in the glazed court. of thel- | 
cole. Sometimes the modillion is recessed far beneath the: 
cornice,: as in the colossal entablature. of the Temple of the 
Sun or Portico of Nero. at, Rome.; 

ft. is further necessary to recognize,: that; on all these en 
tablatures the modillion is an apparent, souvenir of an actua 
console,: but, is nothins more than a motive of seulpture or 
ornament,: and olays no structural part; lons afterwards on 
the cornice of Palace. Strogzi. do we again find the modillion 
an organ of construction,: perhaps because the Florsntines di 
not, have colossal stones at. command., The drawing. shows to 
you,: after a very interestins study of M.; Pascal,: better: thal 
all I could say,: what. is the proper function of the modillio 

The variations of the antigue Corinthian orders are infine 
ite,: and I cannot, show all; there are few subjects for which 
data are more abundant.; 

The antique Corinthian order is also that, which most emplo 
ed the different marbles.; That character cannot, be passed ~ 
over in silence.; On the exterior are: some monolihhic shafts § 
of colossal size,: these of the Temple of Antonine and Faustry 
ina being of green cipolline marble,: those of the colonnade 
of the Pantheon and of the Temple,: that, must. have existed at) 
the back of the Forum,: were of Sranite.: The internal columns 
of granite and of marble were in prodigious numbers in the Ba 
basilicas and palaces.: A very interesting’ example of this 
colored architecture, although it. suffered emen in antiquity 
and also since fron unfortunate restorations,: is the intsris 
of the Pantheon of Rome(Fig.: 277);. I regret my inability to 
show its colorins..: | a 

But. the Corinthian order,: that, issparticularly the one of © 
colossal pompous and theatrical arrangements,: is also that, 
lending itself most, to delicate caprices.; The Italian Ren- | 
aissance especially left in that. order: of ideas the most, ex= 


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191 
quisite examples.; And particularly in the capital has taste 
been allowed a free course. It. suffices to ree 1l the names 
of Alberti,: Bramante,: Baccio Pintelli. and Ligorio.: 1 limit, 
myself to mentionins some examples,: notably the masterly 
design of the church at. Rimini. by Leo. Alberti. (Figs.; 278,. 27 
then the portico of the Ghurch at Spoleto (Fis.: 280),. the pi 
lasters of Palace Cancellaria at Rome by Bramante,. the tombs 
in 5.: Maria del Popolo at, Rome,: the Monument. of Colleone: at. 
Venice,: and the ground and second stories of the Municipal — 
Palace at. Brescia (Fis.; 281).: I could extend these mentions: 
to infinity.: 

These great, artists have tausht. us: by their words, that; th 
foras of monumental architecture must be more flexible = 
free in prosrammes of elegance and fancy.} 

Tei Ps the sae with the shafts.: In Srand architecture,: the 
shaft is regularly fluted,: except in colored marble or éran= 
ite.; And it, is necessary to remark, that for these sSreat, or= 
ders granite is in more common use than marble,: and that, — 
when marble is used,: it is generally colored in a uniform to 
If light. in color,: like antigue yellow,: it; is Pluted.; In they 
Capricious orders variegated marbles are more acceptable. or 
indeed the fluting is but. partial,: a part, of the shaft, being” 
sculptured., Examples are innumerable.: In a word,; unity is | 
necessary to srand architecture,. and the little, calls for v 

risty.: The Temple. of Mars the Avenger: or the NWadelei#e would 
be: ridiculous if reduced,: and the little Sallery at, the en» 
trance to the chapel of the School would be absurd, if enlarge 

As for. modern Corinthian orders,: I have already shown a ~~ 
Sreat, number,: naturally selectins the best,: which will suffie 

Finally, in what is termed the Composite order,: you should) 
see only a variant. of the Corinthian,.: This name is: nobhing © 
more than a Claim of some authors,: who found the word “a 
than the thins.: There are very beautiful examoles,. but cer 
ainly the setacts of the. court of the Louvre are. inieols Bal 
thian orders.; A volute larger or smaller’ in a capital does 
not, suffice to change the class of an architectural order.: 


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192 
CHAPTER VIJ,; THE. TUSCAN ORDER,; 

SUMMARY,; «- Character.; -- Stone columns,: wooden entabla 
tures.. «= Researches of "M.: Leseur.; «— Delicacy and air result 
ing from this mode of construction. -- Projectins roofs,; == 
Modern Tuscan.) «= Erroneous practices,.: «= Applications.: 


It, will doubtless be surprisins,: that I. only speak of the 
Tuscan order after treatins of Doric,: Ionde and Corinthian:: 
All Vignolas indeed begin with Tuscan,: and this has become a 
consecrated custom.; But. in the Tuscan as presented to us,: I J 
cannot, recognize a distinct; order,.; What, makes the Sground sto 
ry of the Luxembars (Fig.; 282) anything but. a Doric order,: 2 
more soberly designed than the Doric of the: second story? A= 
gain,: is: not, the order Dopgic for the ground sBiory of the cou 
of fountains at, Fontainebleau (Fig.; 283)? To be logical,.a 7 
Classification thus discoverins the: Tuscan and then the Com= 
posite,: which at a certain time discovered the order of Paest 
um,: should not; stop in its: course; at; least. a hundred orders 
should endow our architecture.) I. need: not, state the: result. 
of such confusion.) 

Yet, I. recognize a Tuscan order.:; What; is: ib? | q 

On this subject,: I borrow much from the course of M.: Lesueu 
who seams to have clearly established the proper: character of 
the Tuscan order,: which is the order composed of stone columr 
and wooden entablature.: 


M.: Lesueur. made a very profound study of the antique orders 


perhaps sometimes rather systematic and too mathematical,: ant 


when he cane. to rules for appli@ation,: displayed much sagacit 
in the criticism of authors; in regard to the Tuscan order, 
he very fully demonstrated the error of the Renaissance auth» 
ors,: who saw in it only a heavy and degenerate Doric,; He shor 
ed that the Tuscan order. retained its wooden entablature as’ 
lis: characteristic,: and that, consequently this mode of con» 
struction,: far. from being an element, of heaviness,: on the ¢ 
trary presented: more slender and widely spaced columans.; It - 
the lishtest, architecture. that. we can find in antiguity.; | 
Conjectures would rather be the word,: yet, there still exisi 
at Pompeii: columns of ‘this: Tuscan order. at, the sobdiers' came 
(Fisg.: 284). and some others,: but their entablatures have disag 
pearsd.; Alone in Tuscany,: the natural heiress of the ancient 
Tuscans,: was evidently continued a tradition,: which produced 


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193 


in the evoch of the Florentine Renaissance exquisite master= 
pieces of taste and elegance,: the purest. expression of the: 
Tuscan order;: 
fhese entablatures of wood are always characterized oy sre 
projections of the roofs., Visible rafters frequently have de 
orated ends and ensure this projection. The different, combi” 
tions employed for: that, effect may be collected in two ;Wo. Sroup 
in one the rafters have no support other than the wall” or th 
architrave taking its place (Fis.: 285),. and then the Sar teeae 
must. be strons enough to not bend under the weight supported 
by the overhans,. and for this puepose they are often doubled 
for a part of the projection; in the other the projection is | 
ensured by means of an external. purlin borne on the project= 
ins end of the tie~beam of the truss (Fis.; 286); this purlin 
then has the same span between the trusses as: the others,« 
and its horizontal position governs the projection of the 
rafters,: which may project, a certain distance beyond ite: 
The first, case is that, of the Tuscan order.; There can be @ 
no projection other than that of the rafters beyond the arches 
itrave,: which is really a sill.: A frieze would be without: © 
reason,: and a cornice still more;. the true cornice is the ra 
ers,: just, as in the original Doric; thus these exquisite pro 
ductions of the Rehaissance are found in the first. manifesta 
tions of Grecian art.: Here again is found the same charact 
of truth,: nothins but. truth.: “= 
When you emoloy this element, of architecturse,: you often in 
dicate it very badly; above the columns is indicated without 
motive a high entablature; on the contrary,: even with very © 
flat. roofs,: permitted by the tiles: employed in Tugecany,. he 
reat.-projection of the rafters almost, entirely coneeals in 
Seats the architrave,: and would even conceal the topos ¢ 
the columns,: if the inclination were not; so small-; Then aot 
gain in this respect; the Tuscan order aust, be expres by ¢ 
treme delicacy.; 
Among the numerous and remarkable productions of such nal 
orisinal art,: I shall cite; Palace Poschi: and Palace Medici. 
at, Pisa; Palace del Comune and Palace Podesta (Fig.: 287) at 
Pistoja; a palace on Via Romana at, Siena,: as well as the Pal 
ace Public of the same city; Palace Guinisi at Lucea and the 
Villa of the same name;- Palace del Comune at San Gimigiano; — 


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. 194 : 
that of the Podezza at, Arezzo; a palace at. Montepulciano; fi 
nally at. Florence, the Loggias Bigallo (Fig,; 288) and Bardi; 
Palaces Spini,: Guigni,: Usuecione and Nicoloni.; (Consult. espe 
Cially Famin and Grandjean,: Edifices de Florence,: and Rohaul 
de Fleury,: Architecture Toscane).: | 

In general you do not; better express the case of the proje 
ting roofs with external purlins.; In such casss,: we frequent 
ly see in your projects consoles placed: by chance and frags 
ments of broken purlins.; Those so doing thereby show,,¢hat t 
do not, in any measure understand the construction,: which the 
Wish to make an architectural motive; if the rafters need su 
port. other than the wall or the architrave,: this support, is 
necessarily a purlin or extended sill,: and this purlin can 
only properly be supported on the tie-bean of the truss pro- 
longed externally; there might. be intermediate consoles,. but 
these ars guite useless,: since: v Be. distances between trusses 
is carefully calculated to permit, * Lhe span of the purlins;: 
and these would be an incumbrance without, motive.; As: for the 
merely horizontal console,: like the extremity of a tie-beam, 
but. which is merely a piece of timber’ fixed in the wall,: it 
affords no stability;. this: copmld only be the overhanging end 
of a tisebeam,: strons enough to not. bend under the weight. bs 
the external purlin,; 

These designs are not so far from us as you might. believe. 
Without, mentioning numerous villas inspired by modern Tuscan 
architecture, you have near Paris a contemporaneous monument 
of hish a i the Hospital for. Insane at, Charenton by Gilbe 
There the porticos of the yards are of the Tuscan order,: rem 
markably desisgned.; This example will serve as a conclusion t 


this study.; (Figs.; 289, 290). a 


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195. 
CHAPTER VITI,: APPLICATIONS OF THE ORDERS.; 
SUMMARY.: == Classigal. examples of the-orders.p-- Compar 
isons. «~ Tables of actual dimensions.; -— Tables of proport- 
ional dimensions, «= Hxamination of some monuments,’ 


i. certainly do not pretend to have said anythins concernin 
the orders; a volume would not, suffice,: and if my course las 
ed six or eight years,: I could devote numerous lectures to 
the studyof the orders.: But then I should have to enter into 
detail,: analyze proportions,: do again what. you find every- 
where,: for thers is no subject in architecture that has been 
aore frequently treated. I. have sought, to say what, is not. 
enoush found in those too brief books, scarcely more than 
formularies.; I. hope to have shown,: that the antigne orders — 
are logical,: that. their: study should be thoushtfiul,: that. one 
should know how to use them,. to know if one be correct,: or. t 
deviate therefrom only with knowledge. of the risks and dansei 

The orders occupy a great. place in your studies; already i 
speaking of proportéons in general,: I have shown some indispw 
table laws of proportion in its necessary varieties,: You will 
have the personal advice of your professors in the study, | 
_ but. always remember in the freest. career of the imaSination,« 
that above formulas is: a theory of the orders,: never to be 
forgotten,} . 

In fact. and historically,: the study of: the ovdeas iss ee 
pivot. of modern architecture since the 16th century.; In’ eRe 
study of walls,: cornices,: doorways,: windows,: exteriors and # 
interiors,: you will continually refer bo it.: Hence the subjeat 
is of capital importance,: and you cannot be too much permeam 
ted by principles permitting you to give to the study of: the 
orders the desired proportion,: according to the orosramme res 
ceived and the character at, which you ain.: 

Classical Examples of the Orders,: a 

After having shown you the most. heautiful examples of: the = 
orders, it, is. necessary to bring them under your eyes. This” 
will afford the proof and confirmation of bis principles jus 
studied,: 

But, I. do not. present, them only with a unit, diameter,. for — 
nothing is more deceptive than this module unit,: that conceals 
the actual size.; Thus: I produce these examples: at. the same 


ae 


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196 } 
actual scale,: and you can then best. see the profound differ=— 
ences between monumental architecture, and that of small buil 
inss.: i 

For the Doric order,: I. do not. go back to the two vena @) 
amples: of Corinth or Sicily.; Very interesting to study in 3 
the history of art,: they remain outside theoretical studies.: 
At. Paestum we find: Doric architecture in full possession of: | 
itself and already producins a masterpiece,: 

Fhe colonnade at, Paestum is of imposins dincastweueaaee wi: 
out. exasserations; the architecture has a very Sreat firm. 
ness and the most, magnificent effect.; It is interestins to. F 
compare in the same edifice the external order and the small) 
internal order of the cell,: a relation existing in reality,: © 
for by the destruction of the walls of the cell,: the little © 
internal orders find themselves adjacent, to the great. colons) 
nades (Fig.; 291). q 

With the Parthenon,: we reach the climax of Greek art,: pers 
feetion itself;: unfortunately the same comparison cannot, be. 
established as at, Paestum,: the internal order being reduced © 
to. conjecture.) | | 

Of the same evoch and art is the Propyleum of Athens.; Theré 
are two Doric orders,: the principal one forming the true j 
Propyleum or entrance portico of the Acropolis, the other is- 
smaller and forms the facades of the two winss,,; 

In comparison to this monumental architecture,: see the eles 
Sant and even slender order: of the Temple. of Cori.: The entab= 
lature is extremely low,: especially the architrave.; Phe edim 
fice is further remarkable for the delicacy of its proportion 
thenselves.: eh : 

Finally,: the Doric order ot the Triangular Forum of Pompeii 
is the tyoe of graceful and rather refined architecture, that 
characterized the Greco- Roman colonies of Magna Grecia.; . 

Then in antiquity were very different types of Dorie orders 
I cannot. represent. them all graphically,: limiting myself to 
@ comoarison of the two extremes,: the great order of Paestum 
and that. of the Triangular Forum of Pompeii,: between the two” 
being that. of the Parthenon (Fig.; 292).: Phe sisht, alone of 
these drawings at. the same scale suffices to exhibit their 
varisty.: lt is also useful to compare the results: of some 
measyrements.: 


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For the distances between axes (for normal spheeer ae 


at. the angle nor at, the middle),: we obbain the following — 
measures.; 


Paestum (Sreat orderl 14.6 fts: 
Paestum (internal order) lis Deter 
Parthenon (great. order). _ | 14,4 
Propyleum (great, order). 14.8 
Propyleum (small order). 7-4 
Gori. 7am 
Triangular Forum of Pompeii. 748 


if we now take the spans of the architraves between the abs 
acuses, or the element, of fragility of construction,: we ‘find, 


Paestum (great order). hard limestone 6. Qn fhe 
Paestum (small order). 5.3 
Parthenon;: marble 765. 
Propyleum (Sreat, order), marble. 6.4 
Propyleum (small order),marble 4,5, 
Cori.; Hard limestone 4.7 
Pompeii,: hard limestone , or, Gee 


The differences between these various measures are sensibl 
but are very far from being in the corresponding proportions. 
lo be certain of this,: it, suffices to collect. im a table the 
chief actual dimensions of the preceding monuments,. then tow 
give the ratio of each to the diameter of the column, 

That. is the purpose of the two following Tables A abd B,: 

(For Tables A and B see page 198.; 

These tables best. show the freedom of ancient art,: not sub 
jected to numerical formulas.; Yet not. freed from the laws of 
the material,: so that; I call your: attention to the last. colum 
of Table A.fhe sole element. with little variation is the spam 
of the architrave,. the dangerous: element, of the construction. 
While the diameter at. Paestum is to that. at. Pompeii. about, as 
3.72 to 1,: the span of the architrave is only as: 1.48 to: 1u9 

Here intervenes that, imperative element. of construction,. — 
that limits the prudent; span of a stone lintel.; Thus, while 
considerable differences are found in the diameters: of the © 
columns and their heights,: the differences in spans are al= 
most, nothing.; For stone architraves the differences from the 
longest, are 0.82,:0.92,; and 1.41 ft., If a greater span of 9. 
ft.) be taken,. 1248 ft.: more than that. of Paestum,: it, is that 


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Parthenon. 


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198 
PABLE A,: 
DORIC. ORDER,: 


mensionsa: 


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i199 
employed. at the Parthenon,a monument. constructed of marble 
with a sreater resistance,: 

In reality,: if something nearly constant occurs in the deg 
ign of the Grecian orders,:. this is not; the module of propor- 
tions,: but, is the actual dimension permitted by es seas cee” 
tions: 

I. have particularly mentioned the Doric orders,: the start» 
ing point. of all architecture: of the orders,; As for the art | 
termed Roman,: it; scarcely employed the Doric order excepting 
for engaged columns,: which differ. entirely from the orders — 
presented at, this time.; | 

In the Renaissance,: Doric colonnades are. not, sufficiently 
numerous to lend themselves to these comparisons,: but. seek 
the numerous examples furnished. by modern architecture,: 

It. will be easy to compare. these examples as already done 
for antique architecture, and you will not. fail. to find in 
that, study the confirmation of what, I have already tausht, 
with regard to proportions.; | 


For. the lonic order,: beautiful examples are less numer J 
ous.: Two tendencies of lonic: architecture in antiguiby — ie. 
have been mentioned; simplicity in one,: richness in the other 
-« As very simple orders,: that. of the Temple of Wingless Vie 
tory at. Athens,: a small and still slightly archaic edifice,: 
is remarkable for the vigor of its proportions,: asi well as 
the style of the details... | 

The Proopyleum presents us with an lonic order in complete 
perfection.; The capital is particularly admirable.; But, this 
order is internal and does not. have the complete entablatures 

With the Temole of Minerva Polias and the Erechtheum we @ 
tain to the richly decorated orders with sreat, taste and del 
icacy,: yet, not; without. a certain excess;. a little of: the Asi 
an spirit may be superposed here on the pure Grecian Senius, 
Then I recall to you the examples of Priene and of Pompeii.; 
These suffice for comparison like those made for the Doric,: 
and are siven in Tables ©. and D,: (Page 200).; 4 

I do not. treat, of the conclusions to be deduced from these 
tables,« but, limit, myself to showing a Sraphical comparison ¢ 
the principal examples of the orderf{¥is.; 293).; 

In modern architecture from the Renaissance to our days,: 
the Ionic order has: been least. emoloyed as. a pure colonnadé. 


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Forum of Pompeii 


Monuments.’ 


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— 


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200 
PABLE C,: 


IONIG ORDBRS,: 


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I cite tbe old court. of the School of Medicine,: the facade d 
Church 8.: Vincent. de Paul,: and a vestibule of the court. of 
the Louvre,: all in Paris.: 

These Ionic examples differ little in seneral file the an- 
tigque orders,: except, in details; thus their: elements are les 
accented than in the Grecian orders, the volutes: of the capi: 
tals have lost their breadth,. the bases project, less, the ar 
chitraves are lower,: and the cornices are less vigorous in © 
profiles.: : 

One misht, almost, say,: that since the monuments of the Acro: 
olis and the caprices of Pompeii,. the Ionic order has not. be 
come acclimated,: but has been denatured and almost. oi 
by its most, recent, competitor,: the Copinthian order.: 

Examples of the Corinthian order abound.; Not: in Greece ite 

elf,: where that. order was: born,: but. was applied to edifices 
i little imp@®tance and rarely in colonnades. I have alread 
y cited the Monument, of Lysicrates with enSased columns,: and 
the Tholos of fpidauras with an internal order,’ very intere 
inS as’ showing how the Greeks conesived an internal <evnea 
that, does not, receive rain,: but responds to all other needs 9 
like an external cornice,: and that. also exhibits a very sin- 
ple and very architectural application of the Corinthian caps 
ital.: | 

In. Italy are Corinthian orders: of the republican epoch; th 
of Cori is very vigorous,: that. of the Teaple of Minerva at, A 
sizi. (Fig.: 275).is very remarkable forthe: srrshee= ae 
raking entablature of its pediment,; 

Phe order of the Temple of Vesta at, Tivoli. (Pig.; 275),\ a | 
circular edifice of beautiful proportions,: is very vigorous 
and in a beautiful style,: whose capital is a epmposition char 
acterized by the use of a variety of curled acanthus,: as: well 
as by the character: and projection of its: rosettes and volute: 

The Temple of Vesta at Rome is likewise circular and pre= — 
sents an order of slennter proportions and beautiful design; 
its capital is remarkable by the: character: of the leaves of @& 
pointed acanthus,: with the acute angles of the abacus not be= 
ing ent. off. _ 3 S| 

Then come a multitude of great orders of the imperial epoe 

First, that. of the Temple of Mars the Avenger at Rome (Fiss 
4,0),: the Temple of Antonine and Faustina (Fis. 52) with six 


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202 
columns in front, of variegated marble; the frieze of the ¢ 
tablature is ornamented by beattiful sculptures not, shown in 
the. adjacent, skatch,: and the cornice is without, modillions,.: 
CRis.: 294).: 

On the contrary,: the Temple of Jupiter Stator has a much 
decorated capital,: architrave divided by a sculptured band,: 
with plain frieze beneath a cornice without, modillions,: 

These examples suffice. to show the. variety of the Corinth- 
ian order in the monumental architecture of antiguity.; In a 
more intimate character,: at. Pompeii. are found Corinthian ord 
ers of less slender. design,: particularly in the atrium,: like 
that, of the House of tbe Labyrinth.Numerous examples may be 
seen in Mazois'. work.: 

Examples might, be multiplied,: but. some suffice, and their 
actual and proportional dimensions are: collected in Tables 
Ee; and F,; (Fig.: 295).{See page 205 for: Tables BE and. F).: 

I advise you to make similar sraphical and numerival con—_ 
parisons of various examples;. you will find a large number 
and can prove the great diversity in the design of the ord-— 
ers., Varieties that may only be shades,: but, sufficient. to div 
turb those amons you with the erroneous and deceptive idea of 
a numerical formula in proportions,; 

The Renaissance made little use of the properly termed Com 
inthian colonnades,: generally treating them in a character © 
rather elegant, then monumental.: But, the examples of: the Core 
inthian order are innumerable,: in all the motives suggested — 
by a rich imagination to the architects of the Renaissance. ™ 
I. could fill entire pages with citations: having: all the dryue 
of a table of contents.: 4 

With the epoch of Louis XIV,: the Corinthian colonnade reign 
as. sovereign over archaiecture.; The most celebrated example 
is the colonnade of the Louvee (Fig,; 296) with coupled column 
it: is interesting to compare it, with the nearly contemporanes 
ous internal order of the chapel of Versailles (Fis.; 56).:; q 

in the succeeding century is found the magnificent, example 
of the colonnades of Place de: la Concorde,: and likewise a 60 
position with the internal colonnade of the hall of the the: 
tre of Versailles.. I cite only the most, remarkable,; » 

I have connected the orders with the study of proportions; 
the colonnade: is: indeed one of the means of composing’ the por 


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TABLE &E,: 
CORINTHIAN ORDERS,: 
' Monuments,’ Actual Dimensions,: 


Lowevl Diam.|Inter. Height Height| Free ‘space | 


cliam 
of of jcolum-| of lentab- bet, 
Column Base |niation Colummese cym ana oen 
: UMS. Base 


Temple of Asgiz! : 39] 4 Ob) 9.60 auto} S12 ee eee: 
Temple of Tivoli LAS) 0.35) 6.65} 23.40) 3.59) H.07 3.0 
g i 


‘ 
, 


AGA) ZB 


Temple of Antonine& Faustin al +4. 6,70 


Temple of Jupiter Stator| 495| 6.73 11.87 |7.53|5, 66 


Pompeii . House of Laby rint 2.43|9.02|12.15}26.00 6.63 


f0 


SS 


CORINE 
Vonuments,: 
Ratio to Heigh 
of Column. 
Assizi 
Tivoli 


Vesta at Kome 
Mars Avenger 


Antonine and Faustina 


Jupiter Stator 


Pompeii 


NN  —————Ee 


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205. 
CHAPTER IX,.: ARCADE PORTICOS,: . 
SUMMARY. e- Popkdiee'sl with arches on piers.) == On ino) am 
ed: evlumns;: coupled in width or depth. -« Mediaeval porticos 
-~« Cloisters.; -— Porticos enclosed by columns or: pia 
~- Importance: of the study of porticos..: 


For. arcade porticos are not found historical or. ethnic cla 
sifications as for colonnade: porticos.; If these porticos can 
sometimes be connected with the Doric,: Ionic or Corinthian 
families,: this is by elements of the columns and entadlatures 
that are not the portico itself, but, are rather decoration 
than construction,.; 

Then without. classification,: let us seek the simplest ex= — 
pression of the portico,: which is evidently a series of arch 
es on a row of rectansSular or square piers,: like the porti~ 
eos. of Rue de Rivoli.: j 

Not. much is to be said here. after what has been said of th 
arch; this motive of porticos in its simplicity appears to 
have rarely, tempted. architects,: for there are very few monu= 
‘mental Examoles. 1 cannot cite the magnificent Roman aque= — 
duets as porticos,: though not. differing in composition; the. 
Rue de Rivoli’ was cited as an example and not, as a model; ye 
some porticos with rectangular piers merit, serious study; th 
of the lateral facade of the Church of Rimini. by Leo Alberti, 
(Fis.: 279),. the arcades of the Church S,: Damaso atRome (Fis. 
297),. those of Place de la Concorde;: at. Venice and elsewhere 
notably at. the Prisons of Venice (Fig.: 298),: are some exam— 
ples of arches on piers with bosses; finally,: the second sto 
ry of the Library of S8.: Genevieve,: althoush this: may be rath 
er. a series of windows than a portico. 

But. the inconveniences of: the rectansular pier hers again 
call for the substitution of the column forthe pier.; Thus — F 
we. see numerous porticos with arcades ongesingle,: Bupled ora 
Srouped columns.: 7 

The simplest case is that, of the single column as in the: 7 
court of the Cancellaria already shown (Fig. 225),: a masters 
piece.; 1 see it as a type and will briefly analyze it,° . 

The shaft of the column is: of Sranite,: on the one hand he- 
ing heavily loaded,. this load a guarantee of stability,: om ~ 
the other the shaft, being exposed to the thrusts of arches © 


Se 
— 


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206 4 
and vaults in spite of metal ties,. it, requires to be monolit 
to act as: a sort of rocking strut. in case of need, while if 
they were in courses the least, horizontal force misht disloc 
them.: The base and capital are of marble.; 

fhe capital is: higher: than in the ordinary Doric: erder;. be 
tween this granite shaft, and the arch,: the construction woul 
be badly proportioned: with a low capital,: for such a low 
course misht. be fractured.: . 

Between the capital and arch is nothins,. the capital direc 
ly receiving the impost,.: There is no motive for a @pmplete 
entablature nor even for. a simple architrave,: whose purpose) 
is always the connection of two columns,; 

This portico is faultless in taste,: beins by Bramante,: log 
ical in composition,: and it should be regarded as a type of 
arcade portico with simple columns.: 

You will again find very oretty examples of 00 
composed in Tuscan architecture; the works of Refnaud,: of 
min&g Grandjean exhibit some of extreme elegance.; In very 
monumental treatment. may be studied the superposed porticos 

of Palace: Doge: at, Venice (Fis.; 221).: 

But the portico with simple columns is not. always pohatba 
and one is frequently led to couple them in two re 
on the facade or in depth.: tae “a 

It. is certain that the arcade portico does not. sernaty the 
use of very monumental columns,: since they can rarely have 3 
height exceeding two-thirds the total openings. If rather “ 
slender,: especially in the Sround story,: they are exposed te 
@ certain rockinsg,: and porticos with simple columns are a 
quite bold.: Naturally greater width was sought. for the piel 
the means being to couple the columns,: 

Further, a portico like that of: the Cancellaria only’ per 
mits narrow imposts and consequently small bed olanes.: very. 
hard stone is alone suibable.: These: are the causes of Goup- " 
iing in the direction of the facade.; 


Coupling in depth is often required by the. thickness of . 
wall above or the thrust of the vaults.: : a 
In piers so composed,: the columns: should be combined,: and 
the architrave is necessary to form again the springing of 
the well. Thu& notable in Genoese architecture are numerous 
examples of piers composed of two columns with a simple arch 


— 


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207 | 
itrave chy bet Fae the springins; on others is a complete ens 
tablature, or the frieze alone is omitted., The cornice then 
forms an accented impost.: In such a case: the architect, en~ 
ploys the complete entablature,: if he desires te give the ix 
post an important. value by projection; but; he limits himself 
totthe architecture, if he prefers to not divide the heisht™ 
of the story by a strons projection.: I will cite as examples 
the coupling in the direction of the wall,: the open logsia © 
of Villa Medici (Fig.: 299),: so interesting in many respects” 
and represented here without the reliefs decorating it,: 
Palace of University at Genoa,: whose general arransement is. 
admirable (Fis.: 300),: finally one of the vestibules at vie 
Louvre (Fig.: 501)¢: ith 

For the case of coupling two columns,: one behind the othe 
it. occurs when the wall has a thickness greater than permits 
ted by the diameter of the column.: But the design of the por 
tico recurs to that with simple columns,: if the two columns 
are connected,: and therefore an architrave: at. least: serves. 
an impost for the springins of the arches.; 4 

there are few examples of couplins in both directions, : 
which recurs to the pier of four columns; rather are found © 
piers with four engaged columns placed at the angles of a ‘80 
id square nucleus.; These piers then have the arrangement of 
those to be seen in another vestibule of the court of the — 
Louvre (Fis,- 302),: 

In these examples,: the arch is such as it would be on a 
square or rectangular pier,: thet has hollows or is combined 
by couplins,: but the architraves restore the well, and the 
hollows of the pier do not; continue in the archivolt,: exeept 
ing when the principal arch is stepped. Here again as forth 
architrave of the obders,: the thought is to reform the wall; 
the openings of the portico ere assumed to be in a solid ¥ 

In the areade portitos of the middle. ages,. the spirit. of 
the composition is different. To each element of the pier 
corresponds an element of the archivolt.: Thus as a petnolgl 
in that. architecture, : to a plan of the pier A (Fig 303) ¢ 
responds a section B,: reproducing the projections and rece 
es of the plan, except’ the squarins of the rounded bharnell 
This is not absolute,: but at. least is the spirit of nedizevi 
construction,: very different fron that, just exemined,- 


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208 ‘ 

Further,: in mediaeval porticos is a variety of combinatini 
even sreater than in the porticos of antiquity or of the Rei 
aissance.) Even the number of these combinations makes. it, dii 
ficult. to determine their principles,: but: it. is necessary tc 
do SOe) ; 
ihile in Byzantine architecture,: for example at. 8.) Bephill 
of Constantinople,:or at S.: Mark (Fis.: 304),.in the Sicilis 
architecture of Palermo (Figs. 305) or of: Monreale (Fig.- 6),: 
this is still the simple column with capital having a very — 
energetic abacus,: supporting the sprinsinsgs of the arches 
rectangular section ~~ in Romanesque and especially in Gothi 
architecture the arches are increasingly moulded and indepe 
ent;. the piers then almost, always consist, of a certain nuclé 
us surrounded by slender projecting end much varied columns, 
that ere at different heights the starting points of corres 
sponding arches.) 
Here (Fig.: 307) are some of the most common sections of 
taken from piers of churches between the central and side 
aisles.} There may be found all the elements of the architect 
ure of porticos as just indicated.; Later in the 15th centur 
for example at the Church Notre Dame of Brou,: the pier ue 
are no longer separated, there being neither. iimposts nor 
itals; this may be said to be the application of the srehit 
ture to porticos,.; obee 4 
A celebrated example of the arcade porticos of the middle 
ages is the Loggia of Langi at, Florence (Fig.: 308).; I eans 
Cite none more beautiful. The principle is the same, identi 
Gal sections of pier and of arch. These combinations furthe: 
vary infinitely,: and by their diversity emen escape theorie 


of entirety,: excepting the rights of construction.; — ma” 
A very particular. variety of porticos is produced by the 3 
architecture of cloisters,; iis - 


Evidently some cloisters are only treated as: ‘ora 
ticos and are often very beautiful in the: different. Ginter 
cian monasteries of France and Italy, as also in numer Daal 
convents.) But the cloister also frequently has an entirely 
Special appearance; the portico is more enclosed,: bays ar 
smaller,: or again there are two or three arches to each bay 

Piers are set on a bese wall,: except. at. special entrances 
the wrchitecture is intimete,: while leaving sreat, width for 


risioeck ak hex te to ef PS Claw SAT vi fex “ots 


tsi TAGLR Rilicasiiies Ylesenpe1ys savnseb 
Peo er saasiesa sis to eidigatigg» edd yad 
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(4h 36. Satdcortl -.2 to PRE 588) SAOK VR TetTods 
6 isthedie0 ait i hee peter soot | oeaekow. Yo 
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wend Iitwy 21 <Axts eta Toii¢twsess ssa ie 
ing 
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GE ena & Baek a9y aad-eelamaxe Ietiicasd fteoc 
off da Mesefg esoxvoest sis Ife. to bas >y sicheey 


acdi isos Bheote -bancitien gino. eved: 1 28% og:: 
joncio beteusy Wilsvo> “seiionA et8h lig 14. ange’ 
ae Po yetsor> ed) fo een end dadty sbebts “eh? 
gelg ered Wenio ‘edt -.eresdaelig zc aoa bee eet? 
ae apr Yo saxptosvidows edd tiveq Ie dnemanto 
paid Ro, gindoesicove ats. “ot edstego10gs adnenele 
PF bale h ed Joucad golbiethersvog siaswe R 
ever (omebnoe of pide eevlgcceds bevelled 
tee Cas enssesl yfisead YESer . vie. 
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‘os 


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ay Gan so). jnevels arcisst¢ wend "0d avoscidets : \ 


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Pars v 


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“(, of porticos.; i 


209 A 
the. walk.The wall of the cloister is: unusually thiek,: so thai 
the columns of the cloister are coupled in depyh,: their slen- 
derness frequently contrasting with the strong piers support: 
ing the springinss of the arches.) 

Among so many examples,: such are the cloisters of 8.; John 
Lateran at Rome (Fig. 309),: of S.; Trophime at, Arles,: those oi 
Puy, Moissac,: Montmajour,: and of the Cathedral at Laon )Fis.; 
510),: or in a quite special form, the little cloisters of Se. 
mur (Fig.; 311),: of Mont S.} Michel and so many others. Even ii 
Paris may be seen in Rue des Archives the pretty cloistersof 
the old House of the Billettes.: A cloister with a very par= 
ticular arrangement is thet of the Convent. della Pace at. Rom 
by Bramante.: A drawing borrowed from Letarouilly will dispem 
with a description (Fig.; 312).; It. will be necessary to retur) 
to cloisters in speaking of religious architecture,: and at 
present I merely mention that variety of the architecture 


In Italy,: the portico often takes the name of lossia,: this 
name: beins reserved for porticos for pleasure. ob, rest, : rathe 
than passage.; Thus for the Lossia of Lenzi at, Plorence,: the 
Loggia of Verona,: the Logétta of Venize at. the foot. of the ; 
Campanile,: or the logsias arranged in the upper stories of 
edifices,: not. intended for passage but for pleasure, usually 
facing fine views.’ . 

Nothing is more varied than porticos,: both in their pro- 
grammes and their expression.) Only by a knowledge of the i 
most beautiful examples can you form a true: idea of this dia 
versity,: and of all the resources placed at.the command of | 
architects by thés precious element, of the portico. a 

So far I have only mentioned arcade porticos on piers,: col: 
uans or pillars.: Another equally varied element is that of 
the arcade with the use of the orders,: by means of engaged 
free columns or pilasters.; The order here plays rather an 7 
ornamental part; the architecture of arcades is expressed by 
elements appropriate for the architecture of the plat-band.” 
A certain contradiction cannot be denied,: that purists have 
believed themselves able to condemn.: This rigorism is exces. 
sive, for it greatly lessens the patrimony of architecture,’ 
and it is truly severe to proscribe a motive producing the 
Theatre of Marcellus and the courtof Palace Farnese,: 


| 


esisrog ebsses & 2 jadi swebive gtewls ei sI 

dahde ee noo’ 6ldedhaatloan as exudoesidote eopting mort 
agxe esi seed grad binon Bagh ,efeinkt ddlwi ooliaog sid 
o gu0edeaso gusinoo need fed oSisaoq ebeate’ add EI not 
= si tatuseqga mite? S85 ogo Vaoneddass eta ro se 
Sg Prognos. Gigeitre ta bee cass? of be sSimdve sd heviso 
(QSE6 PAGO? Sew yedsed gutddoq {ti 1et beiesio st 
Biinog eSssveloo Jo. s#fonegnas14 bas leis edd os ls. oi 
eae Pie ec0tdibais tol-josqes 1. to Jivear &.as5ei 
Bt Udineq ens f0%. sPtHIcaiidota Ab ydiav 203 
pYgVOR Gsag Sot? don of ow Baas -,9ue8 end gytnol 
F407 Moess1 e649 stettenoned of om he¢dinaues Jeitis 
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on dae on wae ge ,eierot etepey ingen gtedd aistex 


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femeene eusleorc¥ Yo sisdsedl sila. .badio: % 
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yitokde af Bebeacoico anted Ineose edd jenmpdge 
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retain their wegnifigent forms,: but: they no longer have their 


210: | 
it is always evident that the sncade portico never received 
from antigue architecture an unchangeable consecration like 
the portico with lintels.: What. would have been its express= 
ion if the arcade: portico had been contemporaheous with Peast 
um or the Parthenon? None can tell.: Appearing later,: it re» 
ceived or submitted to forms and an artistic composition nev= 
er created for it; nothings better was found than to apply to. 
it also the admired arrangement, of colonnede porticos., Doubt- 
less a result of respect for traditions and a kind of instine 
for unity in architecture, But the purity is evidently no 
lonser the same,: and we do not. find that, sovereign regson,: 
that: permitted me to demonstrate the reason for each element 
of the antique order.) Then the elements of the order employe 


Functions.) ; 

But it does not, matter, and I have to show how this motive 
has been employed in various ways,: according to the idea dome 
inabing the thought, of the architect.: Hithout entering into © 
a detailed examination of all the beautiful examples of port- 
icos of this kind,: I. present, two very different, types,: alread 
y cited, the Theatre of Marcellus and Palace: Farnese. 1 

At the Theatre of Marcellus (Fig.; 45). the. construction of @ 
the arcade is most. apparent; piers are wide and the imposts © 
are accented; the annular archivgolt has all the depth requir- 
ed by the strons construction.: The column is a i in @ 
comparison with the elements of the arcades’ ) 

In the court of Palace Farnese (Fis: 46) the effect is: en= 
tirely different; the arcade is only a filling within the ver 
strongly accented architecture of the order. The pier @s nares 
row and the archivolt has only the minimum depth necessary — 
for the contact of the voussoirs.; 

The first, example may be said to be arcades accompanied by 
columns,: the second being colonnades in which are arches,- 

I eite again the portico with pilasters of Chureh dra Coe 
by Vignola (Fis.; 313).; It is here evident,: that, the use of ; 
pilasters leaves to the entirety of the pier more unity, and. 
thet the order counts less than with the use of the column,: 

The order has frequently been employed as an outlining mo- 
tive, as on the beautiful fecade of Church of Rimini): treated 
as a sort of portico and previously shown (Fis.- 279),: the 


Let 


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that. can be comprised in two é@lasses,: those with bosses on 


vm * 


ent 
refined portico of Spoleto attributed to Bramante,: and by cor 
trast, the slightly heavy ones of Place du Carrousel s;Nothing 
is more legitimate, for thus is avoided. the overhang of the 
entableture,: whose architrave does not here fill the funetior 
of a ljintel,: and that can be merely an overhansgins projectior 
further the general projection of the column with or without: 
pedestal and its entablature forms at each bay a very useful 
buttress,: when the vaults of the portico concentrate their: 
thrusts on the piers.; Then the column may be even free,: the 
buttress is only more powerful, and the: monumental effect, has 
Sreat, richness.; Such is the motive seen on the Arch of Tri» 
umph of the Carrousel.: is : 
As for the numerous examples. of arcade- porticos with free ; 
columns and entablatures not: profiled,: I cannot, recommend 
them,: in spite of all the talent, sometimes displayed theres: — 
Such is the celebrated porch of Church S,.: Gervais in Parti’s.; 4 
The contradiction is too flagrant. between that, arcade and the 
larger platband,: there indeed jointed as such,:« and no longer. 
an ornamental projection. The law of necessary proportions ‘ 
is scorned,: not with impunity.) This combination is found in ; 
beautiful edifices at. the Invalides,: Versailles,: etc.; That. } 
does not. suffice to authorize it,: and it, always remains non~ 
sense. 


Many other arrangements have been imagined for pide Tees 
arches between coupled columns,: motives of alternating bays,: 
large ahd small arches, but; 1 cannot: enter into all these vas 
riations,; Some: words only. on porticos with bossess} 7 

I shall not, return to what was said on the study of bosses’ 
themselves.: For the portico have been made different. studies, 


columns,: piers end voussoirs,: and those where the columns re- 
main plain or fluted with bosses only on the arch,: or on the. 
column alome,.; Evidently the bosses over all has more unity | 
and character; the most beautiful example is perhaps the Gats 
of the Farnese Gardens (Figs.; 314),: or the Gate of the Citadel 
of 8S.) Andrea at. Verona by Sanmicheli.: Very interesting is als 
So the court of Palace Pitti with its square bosses of unusu 
vigor,: and at Verona the beautiful sround story of Palace Bev 
ilacgqua (Fig.; 515).; As for mixed combinations, consideration 
of the entirety in the general design of a Bicade may sometin 


A Naieeioge te gaol iqeone jelicese 3 eedsaolb 
Pitaes “dpteed oft. Hevevios o¢ adbteegp eteolich A. 

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ance» ileedi to TMes-nsst SVON OR BAiet «Sey 
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dictates a somewhat exceptionel arrangement.’ 

A delicate question to solve in the design of areade porti: 
cos with engaged columns is that, of plain or fluted columns;: 
Beautiful examples of both kinds exist; from antiquity are 
the fluted column at. the Tabularium,: the smooth column at thi 
Theatge of Marcellus,: the Colosseum,: etc.; 

The column is here no longer that, clearly defined element. 
of the antique order,: the round pier supporting the entabla- 
ture. Being mo more than half of itself,: connected to a pier 
with which it, is bound by its }ointing,: it. should rather: be 
absorbed in the architecture of this: pier.; Fluted,: as at, the 
Tabularium and on the second story of the School of Fine Art; 
it appears as a monolith placed asgeinst the well and detach- 
ed from the construction,: assuming the appearance of an over: 
lay. Thus it seems that the ehgaged column should logically 
omit the flutes to preserve with the pier the unity of ap- | 
pearance expressive of unity of construction.) Such are indees 
the porticos cited as types,: the Theatre of Marcellus or 
court, of Palace Farnese.; 

But, this cannot. be a rule.: The idea of richness may cause 
the adoption of flutes,: and the portico may be joined to a 
facade requirins its decoration,: as on the court, of the Louvi 
the arrangement of the second story does not permit plain 
columns for the ground story designed like a portiso.: 

You will also find porticos where a small order serves as 
@ Dier for the arch between the orders of the general aor ane 
ment.) A celebrated example of this motive is the Basilica of 
Vicenza by Palladio,: a great hall surrounded by portécos (Pig 
5316),: where the bays have very wide. proportions.; With a clos: 
er spacing, the same arrangement, is. found on the Library of j 
Venice (Fig.; 317) by Sansovino,: the starting point, for the 
Sreat. edifice of the Procuratio,: whose bays hate been shown © 
to you (Fig.,; 20)., ‘ 

You are Ee always,: but you. shautiel know why you deci de 
in one sense or another.: ; 

In terminating this NM EN 
hausted,: all its importance should again be emphasized.; | 

Shall you make porticos,: colonnade or arcade?’ I. hope so,: 
for. no subject is so seductive to the architect.: But I have 
some doubts, for the portico is never an imperative necessit 


mae. 

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-glgeigt pike 40 aiid oh soy Medved jib am 
gt . ee at pee Tortie so sosiqeitt 4 1edésde ° 
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ne Misiiak you. aes nee or aay ia all sts 
whether a fireplace or mirror: frame in an interio: 
found knowledge of the architecture of porticos . 
en and direct, you.Centuries have made our art, st 
esive from the hands of your predecessors.) The 
then of capital importance; ‘TT cannot, teach you t 
portico completely --you will be learning that, « 
but I have shown the way, if I have clearly ir 
guides and supports; construction,: proportion 


pds 


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zZi4 
BOOK V.. ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE; 3 ‘ 
Roofs, «= Floors.j «= Vaults.: «= Stairways.) «- Various ne 


CHAPTER I, ROOFS; THEIR COMPOSITION,- x % 
SUMMARY,: = Plane roofs,; «— Shed foofs.: -— Gable roof se: 
=~» Gables.: =~ Hip roofs. «= Intersections of roofs. == Hips,: 


i 


valleys, ridges. »- Projections and penetrations of roofs..: - 
Unequal slopes, intersections.} =- Curved roofs., == Mansard 4 
eurb roofs.) 


Your edifice has risen, great or small,: which was the obje 
of preceding studies of walls,: doorways,: windows, : porticos,: 
etc. All that is vertical architecture,: which now must, be 
covered, to protect it from weather and especially rain; the 
problem is sometimes complex and difficult,: but will always. 
be to throw off externally the water as rapidly as possible, 
This will be attained by the study of the simplest arrange- = 
ment. of the inclined planes of your roofs, even if terraces; 
for the terrace is merely a combination of slightly inclined 
planes.: | 

This simplest, possible arrangement, of the roofs is only ob: 
tained by the geometrical study of their elements,: excepting 
for absolutely simple cases,: where you will have to take int. 
account by a plan of the roofs their possible forms.) 

Fhe roofs may be plane, curved or broken,: plane. roofs bei 
by far most common, and we will first, consider them.: 

The simplest, arrangement of the roof is that, with a single 
Slope,: termed a shed roof (Fig.; 318),: like the covering of a 
portico adjoining a higher building,: of the side aisles of © 
churches,: stc.; But more generally buildings are covered by 
Sable roofs with two slopes (Fis.: 319),: their line #f inter- 
section being a horizonvyal straisht, line termed ridge; the * 
roof terminates below at each side in a horizontal eave or 
Sutter., If the buildings be longest in one direction,: the 
gables should be at, the shorter sides, the gutter lines and 
ridge then beings parallel to the longer walls.) Thus: sreat. 7 
spans of roofs may be avoided and the easiest solution be at: 
tained,: preventing great, heights of roofs resulting iran a* 
Sreat, spane: | 

Then assuming a rectangular building,: the simplest plan is 
to. cover it by two rectangular slopes,: the ridge then conne 


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2g5ind the end wale 
connectins the end walls,: that, terminete in triansular. gabl 
(Fig.: 320).: Such is the case with antique temples,: and in 
modern architecture for a multitude of structures,: whether 
ordinary sheds,: storehouses, ete.,: or monunental like nost, 
ehurches,) | 

A square plan may also be covered by two rectangular slopes 
and have two gables,.: But most. frequently a square plan is 
covered by four slopes forming a square pyramid with an isos 
celes triangle for each face.) Thss structure is then said to 
be covered by a@ hip roof(Fig.; 321), (and the intersections of 
the four faces are termed hibs,; | 

A rectangular plan may likewise: be covered by a hip roof 
(Figs 4322),: provided there be no great, difference between tht 
sides,: but, then the inclinetions differ in pairs,: which nevel 
has so good an effect,. if the roof is visible and appears. in 
outline,: . 

When the buildins has the form of an elonsated ae ! 
(Pig. 323),: covering by a pyramidal roof is: no longer possi= 
ble; if sables are not: desired, there will be four slopes,: ; 
trapezoids and two triangles, and a ridge lengthwise the buil 
ing. The four inclinations may be equal,: but, the end slopes 7 
are. sometimes steeper,.: | 

To complete structures of simple form,: the circular edifics 
will have a conical roof; a regular polygon will be covered 
by a pyramid with as many hips as the angles of the external 
wall; a semicircle or half polyson at, the end of a rectangu= 
lar structure will be covered by a deit cone: or. Ala join 
ing the longer sides.; 

But: when the composition exhibits an intersection of two © 
parts of the building having equal heights,: the roofs also © 
intersect, when the intersection of the planes will always be 
the edge of a diedral angle,: but. concave instead of being cor 
vex like a hip.: These concave intersections are termed valley 

Thus in the sketch (Fag.; 324). two buildings intersect at, e 
right angle,. the ridges crossings at: the meetings of the axes,i 
and the slopes intersect. in the valleys projected at, 45° on 
the plan.) If the widths be unequal,: then the arrangement ma 
be the same,: when the ridges may be at the same heisht,: the 
inclinations being unequal (Fig.) 325),. and the valleys not 7 
being at 45°,.or the roofs may have equal inclinations (Fig.; 


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216 
426),: when the ridges will no longer be at. the same height;. 


the narrower roof penetrates the wider one, the intersec= 
tions retainins the name of valleys.: 

These different combinations may be found in the same. plas 
Thus on a building enclosing a court will be both hips and ~ 
valleys (Fig.; 327),: a hip aleays corresponding to @ convex | 
angle and a valley to. a reentrant. ONS.) 

Here is an exemple (Fig.: 328) of a main building with fou 
smaller projections and a middle one of equal width,; The 
hips,: valleys,: gable,: principal and secondary ridges are ea 
ily recosnized,; 

In brief, the first, study of the roofs on an edifice: con= 
Sists in makins a plan of them,: in which are taken into ac= 
count the horizontal or inclined intersections to ensure th 
flow of the water to the exterior.; This study is sometimes 
complicated and troublesome,; 

Further,: the inclinations will not always be equal.: Assume 
this plan (Fig. 328) with pronounced inclinations for the 
principal building and lower ones for the peojections.: The 
plan then becomes this (Fis.; 329).; A mere comparison of the 
two plans shows their differences gndi their motives. | 

Likewise for the pavilion with hip roof at, the intersectior 
of two atructures at. right angles,: when the ridges: may be cc 
nected (Fis.: 330), hips: and valleys all meeting at, one point, 
but. it. is evident, that, the slopes of the hip roof are less © 
than for the buildings Or the inclinations may be equal, wher 
the hipa and valleys are projected at 45° (Fig. 351),: and 
the direction of the valleys depends on the differences be- 
tween the inclinations of the two roofs. 

These examples: may be varied infinitely,: but: eo) wee mus 
always be sought, by the geometrical study of the plan of the 
roofs.’ Sometimes complicated as these are sometimes imposed, 
yet. are to be avoided if possible.; A consideration that mus: 
Sovern thé arrangement and study of a plan is the facility | 
combination of the roofs.; | ; 

You can make a useful exercise of these combinations,: eit, 
er by arbitrary assumptions, or by seeking the possible ars) 
rangement, of the roofs of edifices with Siven plans.; As an © 
ample is given the plan of the: roofs of a portion of a porti 
Go of a church,: combiling most of the preceding cases.) 


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Curved: Roofs.; «— In the precedins,: replace inclined | 
planes by portions of cylinders with generatrices paraliel te 
the eave walls,: and you will have curved roofs.; The hips and 
valleys will be intersections of cylinders,: and if the eyli t 
ders have the same sections,: their intersections will be pla. 
curves; hence though actually curved,: the hips and valleys 
will be projected in straight: lines on the plan,: just: as: if 
the roofs were plane: with equal inclinations.} 

On a circular. plan,: the: roof will become a surface of revo 
lution,: whose directrix may be circular,: elliptical,: parabol 
ie,: oval,: ete.) Such are domes.; 

Curved roofs are unsuited for intersections of roofs with 
different inclinations or rather different. sections,: for the 
the valleys and ridges,: instead of bein’ in vertical planes, 
will actually be curves of double curvature (Fié.; 334),: whic 
produces serious difficulties in construction,} 

In regard to curved: roofs,: i.e. with curved sections and 
thus being eylindrical,: a recommendation is necessary. If 
this curve of the section were 2 circle, half ellipse or oval 
in all cases being a continuous curve,: «= the inclination is 
at first very steep,: startins tangent, to a vertical,: becomes 
nothing at, the ridge, there beins tangent. to a horizontal.: 
Then the water would not run off the upper potion.) Hence: 
the two slopes must Bhwaysnformlancanghe atcthe ridge, eithe 
that the curves form a pointed arch (Fig. 336), or they are 
Chansed to inclined planes,: tangent or raised a step, the u 
al case of glazed skylights (Fis.: 336).: Horizontal surfaces 
must, be avoided in all cases.: 

In broken (mansard or curb). roofs (Fis.; 337),: the roof wii 
two sutters has four inclined planes instead of two.j Phe 
stseper plane. is termed mansard,: the upper one being the dec 

For. combinations of rooms,: the problems are the same as ft 
plane roofs,: and all the preceding examples find here their 
applications: | 

Yet. for interseetions of unegual structures,: the combina» 
tions of plane and mansard roofs may produce different. arrang 
ments.: Phus in Fig. 338,: the ridges of the small buildings © 
range with the edges of the deck of the middle portion,: the 
inclinations of these are the: same as for the mansard,: the 
deck alone having ao lower inclination.,: 


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so the slopes may be unequal as indicated 

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219 
CHAPTER II.; ROOFS,: CONSTRUCTION,. j 
SUMMARY,; == Taniieed plane wkth add site or laths.; == Si 
ple shed roofs. -~- Trusses,.: ~~ Thrusts: and ties.; -- Polygone 
roofs..-= Triangular or mansard trusses,: with raised tie-bea 
»~- Distance between trusses,’ 


Principles of Gonstruction of Roofs.; -— For either: large 
or small roofs,: the problem is always to construct. the incli 
ned surface for supporting the covering,: and which will be a 
sort, of rough jointed sheathing or of open sheathing compose 
of strips.; The former is necessary for metal,: ordinary slate 
or hollow tiles in the South; the strips support. flat or ine 
terlockinsg tiles or wired slates.) 

Strips or boards are placed horizontally.; In the very sin- 
ple case of narrow shed roofs, the surface is supported by 
wooden rafters sloping with the roof and spaced 1.45 to 1.31 
ft.,:0n which are nailed the strips or boards.; The strength 
or dimensions of the rafters depends on their span,: slope, 
weight. of the covering and of accidental loads (passage of: 
men,: snow,: Wind,: etc.;).: But. when these factors would require 
too sreat sections of the rafters,: the slope of the roof | 
would no longer be: constructed with simple rafters, but) reco 
rse would be had to other means,: for: rafters mn Bie always hav 
smali sections,.: 

But this is only practicable for: shed roofs,: where the raf 
ers rest, directly on plates at. bottom and top, : the latter be 
ing set. against, the hisher wall and supported by stone corbe 
or. iron anchors placed at. proper distances (Fis.; 340).; Raft= 
ers should not be fixed in the supporting wall,: as this in- 
jures its stability.: 7 

this very simple arrangement. is possible bdguse the shed 
roof does not. thrust,: contrary to a common erroneous opinior 
If in the theoretical foof in the fisgure,: the upper plate. be 
fixed to the wall and the rafters be fixed to the lower pl t 
if is easy to see that. the only movement, possible for the re 
under the effect of its own weight, and of accidental loads 
would be rotation about the lower plate as a pivot. Very fa 
from tending to overthrow the lower wall,: this movement tend 
to move it toward the middle of the ediflice,: the opposite of 
& thrust. If the stability of the lower wall be feared,: not, 


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220: 
a tie but, a strut is required at 4.) Thus a tie-rod,: as for — 
arches,: would be useless here,: since the member A is: in com— 
pression and not in tension,.: This: remark is necessary becaus 
the contrary prejudice is deeply rooted;. since gable roofs 
exert. an energetic thrust if not neutralized,: it is erroneou 
ly assumed that every roof thrusts.: 

But in roofs with several slopes are required carpentry 
frames of wood or iron to support the ridge and all other elt 
ments of the roof.) Assume a roof on a buildings 50 to. 65. ft,j) 
wide,: when the rafters will have a lengbhh such that they cam 
not support, themselves;. it, is necessary to rest them on a se 
ries of horizontal members termed purlins =» the ridge being 
& purlin,: «— that. have a larger section than the rafters,: 

If there be in the edifice cross walls sufficiently near 
together,: that the purlins may span the distances between 
them,: the roof may be constructed of purlins: and rafters.; Bu 
if these walls do not exist or are too far apart,: the purlin 


must pest on frameworks,: which are trusses.’ 
Thus 2 complete roof consists oft—-= . 
1.; Trusses,( vertical frames of wood or iron and regularly 
spaced,: their upper outline resultins from the inclinations © 
of the roof planes.; 
2.: Purlins,: horizontal members extending from one truss ti 
another and fixed in the geble walls,: when the roof ends thu 
The number of ourlins varies accordins to the width of the 
roof plane, their spacing being generally about 6.6 ft,: for | 
roofs with wooden rafters.: In any case,: there are purlins at 
the bottom and ridge. When the roof is a mansard,: a purlin 
is required at the intersection.; . a 
5.; Finally,: rafters of small section extending in the slo 
of the roof.; 
Hips and valleys require hip and: valley trusses,} 
On this entire framework comes the covering,} a 
I. stated that the shed roof does not thrust, but: on the co 
trary the gable roof thrusts and tends to overthrow the wall 
unless neutralized,.: Assume two inclined planes,: like two sto 
Slabs,: set between two walls and restihs against. each other 
at. top.) (Fis.; 341).: By their weight these planes tend to. 
Sink,: but. cannot do this without spreading the base of the { 
triangle; thus they thrust against the walls,: and unless the 


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Pome astasx: ardé. geadgaia beated tedHen 
hs ee net NE sundaes anens tis mae +0 


stag Bais pete alates, ‘Ge = 
Mantsye ansigit si pesatog: edt duod (ii il 


221 
are strons,: they will be overthrown or spread apart and the 
roof will be deformed.; On the contrary,: if the system (Fig.; 
442) were of a single piece or indeformable,: it, might be s 
ply placed on the walls as a covering,: producing only a veri 
ical force by its own weight, and no thrust: 3 

These theoretical considerations are necessary for taking 
up the composition of trusses.: Phere result; two prineiples:- 
1.; Phat, the thrust must, be neutralized astshown later; 2,3 
That. every framework must, be indeformable.i The triangle alon 
possesses that indeformable property and will. be the unit ol 
the combinations.: 

I. will add that. on any plan of a regular hip. roof,: from t} 
triangle to the polyson with many sides,: producins a pyramid 
a1 roof or formed of cylindrical spindles ),: the thrust may 
be suppressed by an indeformable tie surroundins the base of 
the roof., Thus for an octagonal hip roof (Fis.; 343),: howevel 
energetic the thrusts exerted by the hip trusses,: they have 
no effect. on the walls,: since for one: of the trusses to 
spread, it; is necessary for the tie to stretch or break.; 

fhe hid roof may then be constructed without thrust, and A 
this is very impoptant,: permittins the use of the spacewith- 
ihn the roof.: 4 
After these explanations,: we can take up the study of trus 
CS." | 


Combination of Trusses., ~~ You have two parallel walls 
with neither points of support nor cross walls between them. 
fhe interior must, be free for halls.i There remains for the © 
framework an attic above these halls.)j The tras ee 
ed a2 vertical niesiore siesyd and will then be a triansgle,: the siz 
plest, case.; (Fis.; 344).: a 
The width of bie rear: plane is assumed to require a, steel 
two. purlins and a ridge,: with a principal beneath the purlin 
the two principals then join beneath the ridse,: but, an end ~ 
joint is bad,: and they are connected by means of @ vertical 
member termed kinsgpost,: this framing beind strengthened by © 
struts.) All these members in the same vertical plane support 
the coverins,; 
But, stoppins there,: the principals would tend to rotate a- 
bout. the joint, thereby against and tendins to overthrow the 
Walls.: Hence the feet of the two principals must. be: connected 


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222 
by a horizontal member named tie or tie-beam,. whose funetio 
is to prevent. the spreading of the walis.: Since: it: might, 
bend by its own weight: and length «» which would draw the w 
together =~ the kingpost, supports it; at, thw middle of its | 
length,: and if this suspension be not, sufficient, | Tateepeae 
ones are provided,.: 

This stypdy of a very simple truss exhibits the principle ¢ 
guide you always, that of combining triangles,: for in con= 
struction it, is always necessary to assume hinged joints for 
the framework.) | 4 

For great. spans,: the combination will be more complex,. bul 
always casier with the tie at the base of the roof.) For: exal 
ple,: examine a combinatbon applicehle to a truss of very 
Sreat, span (Fis.; 345).: ve 

For. a mansard roof a complete division into triangles wil] 
not be possible,: for the purpose of such roofs is to allow 
usable spaces in the roof itself,: but, it; is necessary at. ; 
least to strengthen the framework by combination’ of: eS 
(Fis.; 346),; ee 

Finally,: the requirements of construction may require the 
tie-beam (that: supports the beams of the last. floor ).to be 
placed below the base of the roof and with an inelined tie | 
(Fig.; 547). without, injury to the tie-beam or at the bottom; 
if. will be the same in tas truss: of a mansard roof (Fis.; 348 
But though these combinations are often necessary,: they are 
not so good in theory and require more careful study.: 

ly does not, fall within the limits of this: book tO show y¢ 
all the varieties of trusses.) These examples suffice at: pre 
ent to show what a roof is.; All the preceding is further b: 
on construction in wood,: but, with steel if the sections and 
connections are entirely differeht,: the principles remain 6} 
Samés; 1b is always first, necessary to seek indeformable com 
binations,: and to avoid the dangerous thrusts of roofs,: 
whose ties misht; not be sufficient.) ZY 

As to distances between trusses,( this may vary much,: beans 
a question of strength of trusses and purlins,: But: one cons 
Sideration must, precede all others,: the truss must. rest. on - 
resistant points of the construction,: and consequently ber 
placed on the points of support of the bays of the facades.: 
When hipped roofs exist, (Fig.) 349),. it, is well for the half 


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trusses to unite by means of a verticalmember. | 
the first, complete truss,: though this errangen 
ways possible.; Fhe requirements of the plan may 
considerations of easy execution of the framewo: 

This slightly premature study. of roofs could : 
though later pursued in stereometry and consiru 
necessary.to design entireties that may be built, 
all that is first, required,: but, later you will | 
sure the constructions; svce enry s. 22 ae 


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224 . 

CHAPTER Iii.; ROOF, COVHRINGS,, nr wat, ee 

SUMMARY,: ~~ Flow of water.: Continuous drip.; == Roof a 

erings with antifixas or sutters.: == Crown moulding and 

grooves; -- Garsoyles,: leaders.; -~ Monumental roof coverings 

Inclinations required. «= Great inclinations,: terraces,: mal 
sards and decks.; «— Habitable attics.: 


Drips,: Gutters,: ete.: == Formerly in antiquity or the q 
dle ages,: men were contented to allow the rain water to Ball 
off alongs the eaves of the: roof,: either uniformly along its 
entire length or at, certain points,: where the water. was. con 
centratsd by means of sutters,: and from which it, was thrown 
off by Sarhoyles oro jecting morse or less,; This method is 
lonser tolerated today,: and the rain water is collected in 
Sutters at. the bottom of the roof,: then beins removed by le. 
ers dischargins at, the base of the building,: or: better into 
a@ subterranean sewer.; Direct. drip is rarely permibied on pri 
jecting roofs,: never: on a public way.; With direct. drip, the 
base of the building must. be protected against; stagnation ° 
water falling from the roof.: Inclined and very tight, paving 
is indispensable,: as well as. efficient. drainage by channels 
sewers,: ebc.} ; 

Antique roof coverings are of two serts from this: point of} 
View,: those with continuous drip and antefixas,: or those. 
with gutters with a cyma.; | 

The antefixas (Fis.: 350) are vertical ornaments: placed 
the ends. of each row of covering tiles: or of metal sheets; 
water runs down between the rows.: This system is that, of the 
Sreat, Grecian temples,: exceptins when the » tiles: Coren Sia 
and antefixas are of marble,; 

When the water is thrown off by "gargoyles,: there is a st 
Sutter,: always. of little importance,: the Ssargoyles being ve 
closs together and consequently not, having auch water to : 
Charse,j 

This small sutter is the cyma gutter, a well known examp 
being that, of Metapontum (Fig.; 351),: that. consequeatly rae 
part of the roof and not; of the entablature.; Indeed example 
of the cyma gutter are of terra cotta or metal,: when the en: 
tablature is of stone.; Ib, is quite true that, custom finally 
regarded the cyma sutter as the upper part. of the cornice, an 
that, as a modern error, even internal cornices always ter ? 


a 8 


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flinate: in a cyma Ssutter.: But. it. is necessary to recall its 
origin to take account, of certain architectural arrange s 
ments,: notably that: of the pediment,: to be mentioned laters; 

Phe leaders now being necessarily farther. apart. than the 
ancient sarsoyles,: the gutters must, be. mpre important,: for 
they receive more water and their necessary slope requires 
depth.) This slope shonld never be less: than 2 per. cent.: Gut; 
ters have then assumed great, importance,: beins actual chan= 
nels: above the cornices,: and they may be: of: stone,: wood li: 
with metal,: ete.: You will see later that, they have given 
casion for very beautiful motives fon the decoration of fa 
cades.: | “9 

As for construction,: it, is better for the Sutter to be on 
the cornice. and: not, on the wall (F{S 35.2); leaks are them of 
less importdnce,: and they are: seen more proaptly.j Further — 
the depth must be according to the distance apart, of the leg 
ers,: bub. this should not be excessive,: This is often one of 
the greatest. difficulties in the designs for: facades, and: i 
is necessary from the beginning of composition to. foresse. a 
possible locations of the leaders.: This is too frequently 
neglected and trouble follows.; M5 9s 3 

As a summary,: the removal of water is the problem, « fornerl 
very simple,: the water being led by the roof slopes to a or 
jection beyond the walls of the edifice to fall whoea ee : 
might;.so much the worse for passers,; 2 

Such was: the arrangement; on the most. perfect; edifices of — 
antiquity; on the: Parthenon the roof: covering ended with a 
last. or rather first ranse: of: marole tiles with antefixas: ab 
each end of the cover tiles. The water ier fell onitornlye 
alongs the length of the. roofs: 

liven on the most, important, edifices,: such as: the Panthec 
of Rome,: Baths,: Basilicas,: other. errors do not; appears. er 
the. Renaissance the. edifices most. directly inspired by al 
bigue architecture,: for: example,: the palaces of Rome,: were e 
csived with a direct discharge of rain water on the ‘pupa laa 
streets.) Such were: still the. projecting roofs of so 
Fontainebleau a large part. of the: buildings has no other es 

‘eape for the water. Today these edifices are Senerally di} 
ured by frightful gutters,. which we may regret. as: arieasil 
but. it. must. be admitted that. the passers. mite some rishts t 


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not, be overwhelmed,: and that. solutions more careful of the 
public ways are imposed: upon us-} 

In the middle ages, the public street also received onal 
charse from the roofs,: but, it was no. lonser a uniform sand 
for short. gutters concentrated the discharge. of water at, del 
inite points, at. each bay of the edifice.:; The sgarsoyles rea 
ceive the water and project, it, far from the walls,:as on the 
Hall of the Synod at. Sens (Fig. 353) or. at, Museum Cluny in 
Paris (Pig.; 554).; The water no longer fell everywhere,: but. | 
more thickly.: This arrangement: is that, permitted by the 
Sreat dormer windows in the plane of the walls,: to be seen 6 
many mediaeval edifices and on French Renaissance chateaus.; 
The water from the roof was collected between the dormers an 
ran off there,.: Examples of the same. kind nay be seen on nus 
merous Renaissance chateaus,: among which I! cite that of Pail 
with its great central dormer (Fig.; 355),: as well as: the im 
posing facade of the Chateau of Maisons (Fig.: 556), cand you 
may again be convineed of the effect. of a structural elemen 
on the architectural composition itself.: eet il 

But, the same facilities are not, sretiedl to us,¢ cous the: wa: 
ter from our roofs must be conductsd to the sewers without & 
loss of a drop.; Hence the entirely modern elements of the 
long gutter and the leader; Leg i. 

Roofs ars a primary necessity,: and they may also be an art 
element.; Antiquity seems only to have known the merely util- 
itarian roof, Admirably conceived for execution,: it, counted | 
for very little in the appearance of the monument,: no more © 
than that of the Madeleine in Paris.; It; was: the same in Bya~ 
antine architecture (perhaps. excepting the domes),: im that 


i 
A 


The inclination of the roofs soon became more pronounced,: a 
the middle ages and Renaissance present numerous examples of 
roofs,: not, only conceived for coverings the edifice,. bub. alse 
for adding an important. element to its appearance and outlin ) 
Then occurred a disappearance of accented roofs,: and for a 

long time the roof was regarded as negligible for the appear 

ance, it being even admitbed that. the first, care of the arch 
itect, was to conceal it,.; Our modern architsacture has: restore 
their artistic importance to roofs,: though sometines peas 
them like all good things,; 


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crerer g 300% each wera igs nad stom 
3 aed? pone siouni deegbctiinuecs Jostet gzsel 
aybbsqobs ylisvens® mooiaig Boe hesexs Viai 
eee OF. ee ltd. heiniat eon OR-as SO, istden 10 
past yincecoen aise Jom. ef di .eedele fas selrd 
4 yh biuorls Paitgeves Iogy edd dvd: eibeges tie 
sh roy pl. sbeniloni sens Ti ylso gthd of ILin 
ae eelisme ood: Wopm snehisntion! bedon yisnegp 
i fon, Divot, bas aronegnee eye eas, eonesied 
ie a bedowsgs 
3 eytaaeite Saer. fre aoet td bearot eepsiief 
2 ditin. to. hiszom 30. ebes ed nxo te Hove 
y pisvernt so% -sidresoo vino ox dieites 
pace Zo atiag thedveo to eeoeT ad oiea 


ee. a 
Ok Oa 


io seeecm goouzone 40 bediceds eis 


ned gon. 2i yiedl Yo eferiso edd todd 


pee ee: nls es 


yh yassed bas eniisvo eft Hsin wend exinohisd | 


Romane! eidativeni end aada- cbetsie od 


= clination of: the roofs? 


ae 


~ 


227 
Roofs may be an artistic element of great, value; from the 
moment when accented enough to be seen,: it was necessary to 
harmonize them with the outline and beauty of the edifice.” 
All our great, churches may be cited,: and examples exist. at, 
cach step.) At, different epochs and in very different. styles, 
view the roof of the S.: Chapelle (Fig.; 557). and that. of the 
chapel at. Versailles (Pig.; 358).; The: idea is the: same.; Alse 
see the grand roofs of the City Halls of Paris,: Ypres,: Lou- 
vain and Brussels (Fig.; 359).; These examples suffice to shor 
what a beautiful and rich part is due to the roofs.: Some re 
also very ugly and crush the edifice,: yet. it i ae 
clearly accented roofs do not, benefit, the appearance of a 
monument.’ ae 
You will likewise see beautiful mansard roofs,: as: om Cha: 
eau. Maisons,: Palace Luxemburg,: Pavilion of Plora and Galle: 
‘Apollo at the Louvre,; g i 
cine architect then proposes two questions in regard to a 
roofs; what. will be their arrangement, for prompt removal of 
water,: and how must. they harmonize with the: eftoan tala 
ifice? These questions lead to another;- what. will be the in 


For the removal of water,: the inclination must always be 
nore than sufficient.; Flat roofs ars always dangerous,: the — 
least. defect. assuming’ Sreat. importance,: Then they must, sen= 
Sibly exceed the minimum generally adopted,: about, 30 per cen 
for metal,: 35 tp 40 for jointed tiles,: 50 to 60: for flat © 
tiles and slates.: It is not: only necessary for water to run. 
off rapidly,: but the roof coverins should dry rapidly,¢and i 
Will do this only if much inclined.; In your designs are fren 
quently noted inclinations much boo small. ae 

Terraces are very dangerous and should. not, bo TaShigeaail™ 
structed.’ . , Sam 

Terraces formed: by LarSe and very slishtly inclined plane 
such as can be made of mosaic or with a covering of cement. 
asphalt: are only possible for immovable surfaces,: Like the | 
saic terraces of certain parts of Roman Baths.; Yet. it. must 8 
be stated, that the inevitable leaks through holes or crack 
are absorbed by enormous masses of: the vaults,: as well asia 
that the climate of Italy is not that of France.: : 

On less monolithic structures,: particularly if the terra 


So i 
@ ao we ge a ae teiob?4 WS -bedtogauk ose 
te 4 wot 30 essotiady SO. ston # Yoladosd ecosrdies ete: 
speedy “tod: hepednedat vnosdi Yeonstv gon et 2x 
jycuh shinee din erg -zesode net bie asco 
ee U~etdtedeg gia whitind Dad ReTsteaxe woud 
se Lr pyar AG @800s Yat Boos siee Io ervewes 
asl same Yfiostsyga | qsengnes ond Lerntal 
ae ies ae wo” Saeed Yhesey a3 euthd Legh, 
elie isis Be dotesencs eo eee cet Tes Yt 1 ren tose 
feo sobonotievecoat efdativertt Tress niaves yed? 
8, oligo ete Wedaiv ai wens Bos oncive dt eevee! 
bhie x0 Byetesl Gan Brediuk eta (129 ce sntossserds 
a. ak sncecihehe Seva iodes 3% eal addin 


iiicse Cpatiet eis Ho noose Hae, stanolt lo ssxov 
ist io) ieeeset aed BA diets si Cd uhaide Yo uiitoe 
. @ @fbes se679 efe fas -,ietiduon syarls ¢f 
bed Ee pniptove tot aineibeoxe efcsres is 
Hoban Lont So bise teitdiveve “ds 

how ietwout gasth sidty eoltiovao ye 
Se cank stcmniies eidt sets Bitse ¥! 
PENS oe | Et va sea V6 node sii vaernot 


neg halt BuUGtethsah a etrdde fens .csesie ite 
oat Beepae doe waetoslt [audve oe pnimoced icu7 
donde @oniG at vivote okie wond gol greg L ftsre 


Mit evtvom enokoiens sh ‘.eieaits. to soiseour 2 
(ie #2601 s0aT1e) | wore diate ee txts esis 


= 


feiuies a erect ghevel af wore’ iD eho yolnd ena 
) ‘et tey brs xobausg € einees ef at +bios gantes 
ws 908 Baeee to “otorkaes bad Bp tnted woge.. end 
r * feool’ ‘ao bseau eon gro Jald Iecol fos Snerd 
as beat! pane titbavo [aarton GP: Vaewiado eds 10 

Sav eo notsostass 483-107 Jeollecxe & Linsh 
igdeibi® soTd ev sesoc oe ii eldom yuse 
Pepa d> & i> lefisedadd “4b joked atiok Yo 
gat 1 bei tisexs' &6 fetedo ef?) baa LisH . 
ate Ute iscttist (betes {ema dai tise 
er, & ite “senarete” Lédiineed 
AE ESS maaee 


small,: the isy snow melts: slowly in blace without falling.: 


228 é | 
are supported by floors,: this system must; be changed to step 
the terrace becoming a sort of staircases of low riserss; Yet, 
this is not without, inconvendences,: for if the. stone joints 
open,: and few stones: are not porous.; With metal all a 
from expansion and bulsins are: possible.’ 

Beware. of terraces,: for those of the Arch of the Star ha 
injured the monument, apparently eternal, there being only E 
just, time: ta remedy them.: "3 “/ 

Further,: if terraces be constructed with all possible care 
they retain their: inevitable inconveniences. Dust, in summer, 
leaves in autumn and snow in winter are collected,: always 
threatenins to fill the sutters and leaders of the edifice,: 
with leaks,: ete.; Vigilant. oversight is reqaired with frequen 
sweepins,, Since the terrace invites walking,: this’ introduces 
boxes of flowers,: and soon on the terrace ars deposited all 
sorts of things to injure it,.; As: for: removal of water,: this 
is always doubtful, and the great. roofs of Versailles show 
miserable expedients for avoiding visible roofs.: , 

Yet everythins said of: inclinations may. appear contradict: £ 
by countries with sreat, snowfall,: where the roofs are genera 
ly quite flat.; This contradiction is only apparent,: for in ~ 
Norway the snow of October is covered by that of November an 
thus until the sreat, thaw in the sprins.: If the: inclinations 
are steep,: then occurs a dangerous fall of blocks: of ice,(t 
roof becoming an actual slacier.; But if the inclination i= 


A question of climate.: An analogous motive in certain coun= 
tries with persistent, snow,: terrace roofs are. made,‘ so that 
the thick mass of snow in layers forms a natural defense. 
Sainst cold.; This: seems a paradox and yet, is physically true 
the:.snow being a bad conductor of heat.: But. these are excep 
tions and local customs are based on local experience.; | 
On the contrary in normal conditions,: great roofs are evil 
dently excellent for the protection of the builfing and als 
very noble in appearance.; Observe from a distance the roofs 
of Notre Dame, S.; Eustache,: Chambord,: (Fis. 360),: the City © 
Hall and the chapel of Versailles.; What. fine accenting of j 
edifice sheltered! Particularly when to them is left ati 
beautiful character as a coverins without. loadins then Bloc: 
heavy ornaments..: ( “ 


es ? atote to; Pensa a to sox ye ‘a deoxenst? 
pee E;. tee geetont at edits gonsd barifites 
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bs ehded fd Po silad of? no aces as dose .etluay 
g Budd» ~eteasob botsexh soa8 efbbin edd Jadé biae 
2 toa bib eonsestenei eff Sus .2too1 Yo sau ofa 
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‘to feval end ts hated eno ..e6ivate tet o¢ gat 
rése07 ax90ft yd bomi0? buled eteido ef9 bas *, toot 
oR Adie i038 ~Renanid off Yo exaot~talioo aviaaes 
slat gibigat ots eeisode efi. ,qeeda yiev tt aev 
Miteier ‘Qntdss gieath eeomoosd steaioh edd Yo sages 
Sigzaien edd sone ‘etaotttis yasy’ amook odd Yo oat 
& .e@ 100% dalt aed Sue gqeeta ows jo Gsaog 
le boow Sq ifew s deonle ei ebte gesia oii beobal 
ote. Sete cttine of3 Ylisen esevoo xoob Sid 
p-giqmie dos «62 tuixe asceaox a" dens 
Neteds $uG :.hisenem edd Yo bastent yrode 
[tot ted ‘edt edimtedeb gadi,eh¢o02e% od? 107 
Tidy od uso Soot hiagusa Sis weds bee, toot i4 
a enim “eh toe “GtH) Soo1t eidas ais. asd 
p tals. far0308 it bedatvitoe 24 Sisode eno gue 
60 mt eed? -otiis sidadidsed s eben ad of gan 
> ut wiguie Si0m ef toot eldsg edf toot bisaass 
Misoneiseqqs waet? wsom s aed hae ,oldate es02 
nokeon deut eedoaedo eft Yo stoox Jssis aif ated 
a eivood wan oj So aioot Siemies 
moods ‘od Yaolsas émog aed tooy [solshailfyo ost 
Ww qitess s fidiw aeomenmoo ichnifiyo adi Yo ueidoos off 
: batt Bons sviainle nobtention? edd slide. .dtaq 
odd saad on: -aottanifont as od eyenis daua 
Bod suo dast evivo eiguia s od ionass loot 
ao gola ow TAS. goisodaredai odd egbix-sdé# Js oved duum 31 
) aans ois medd ote di guixiitay 102 anoltitonoo sal 
— 4t “pated . enols. asnaiseags eid ..gioor brszaae tot 
Re See dnctebdhivo ed? (.esnautd offs) Yo cites edd as Lier 
jod od iil gounJousss bebsedxe so toddte boar 
cr aaoagned® eos led ip aay: ears eb oof 


a 
| oa 
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ras 


229 q 

They have the fault of greater cost, by the volume of the 
framework and the area of the covering.; Therefore they are. 
utilized, hence attics in roofs,; 

Roman antiguity was acquainted with lateral gables on cros 
vaults,: such as seen on the halls of the Baths,: but, it, may b 
said that, the middle ages greated dorwmers,: thus permitting 
the use of roofs,: and the Renaissance did not, fear po instal] 
several stories in the height; of roofs,:in several city halls 
in Belgium being as many as four. rows of dormers,: corresponds 
ing to four stories,: one being at the level of the base of t 
roof,: and the others being formed by floors resting on the su 
cessive collar=beams of the trusses,; But with gable roofs,: em 
ven if very steep, the stories ere rapidly narrowed: and the 
depth of the dormers becomes éreat,: making ventilation and 1 
ins of the rooms very difficult,.; Hence the mansard foofs cone 
posed of two steep and two flat roofs,., 

Indeed the steep side is almost, a wall of wood or iron,: and 
the deck covers nearly the entire area of the edifice,: so 
that, few reasons exist for not simply adding another vertica 
story instead of the mansard,;, But, there may be requirements © 
for the facade,: that. determine the heisht. of the beginning o 
the roof,: and then the mansard roof can be utilized better 
than the gable roof (Fig.; 361).; . 

But, one should be convinced in general,: that, where it is 
not, to be made a hahitable attic, there is no. occasion for a 
mansard roof.) The gable roof is more simple in construction, 
more stable,: and has a more frank appearance; for proof con- 
pare the great roofs of the churches just, mentioned with the 
mansard roofs of the new Louvre.: 

The cylindrical roof has some analogy to the mansard: roof.; 
The section of the cylinder commences with a nearly vertical 
part, while the inclination diminishes toward the ridge,: but, 
must, always be an inelinavion,: so that the section of the 
roof cannot, be a simple curve tangent to a horizontal at: top; 
it, must; have at. the ridge the intersection of two slopes.) 
The conditions for utilizing it; are then the same (nearly). as 
for mansard roofs,: the appearance alone being different, as 
well as the design of the trusses.; The cylindrical roof is 
used either on extended structures like the houses of the 
Rue de Rivoli,: the: old Palace Champs-Elysees,: or the 


° 


62 e399 0 roves ‘ea Rae hae is 3 


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celebrated Basilica of Vicenza by Palladio;. als 
vavilions as at the Louvre,: Palace of Justice (| 
the central pavilion of the Ecole Militaire,: a 

unent. unfortunately sacrificed by everythings cor 
on all sides (Fis.: 54).: ec oie Gnas 1% fs al 
riation of the. at ar 


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me ood F Yoko, eeuch <cuetetun giisd ysiie! eek 
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Sp irocton ic Ror Lepss i Mo shi va cede, 


241 
CHAPTER IV.: DOMES. AND SPIRES.; oy 
SUMMARY; == Covering a circular. plan.: «= Cones and 90: 
ygonal pyramids. «= Antique domes.; «= Pantheon,: 5.: Sophia 
S.} Peter.; ~» Construction and outline,; «= Spirese; aloe boone 
ive character of modern roofs,; 


At the end of the preceding Chapter the word dome was use 
in speaking of roofs with four cylindrical sides.: This natu 
rally leads me to speak of the roofs of circular edifices.) | 
The simplest, case is the conical roof,: flat, or steep.: Numer 
ous examples ogcur even in Paris; the towers of the Palace ¢ 
Justice,: circuses and panoramas.: Sometimes the cone is rath 
er. a pyramid with polygonal base and a large number of side 
as at. the Circus of Filles de Calvaire (Fis.: 363); there iki 
is a motive of construction,: so that, the sill and. each seri 
of wails form a permanent and therefore: indeformable enclos 

I. know,: and can cite no examples of mansard roof on a ciP 
lar: plan. | 

On the contrary,: domes are numerous,: and this: is one of t 
most beautiful motives on which the architect, can exert, him 
self.) Here in particular may be seen the profound differenc 
between the antique and modern spirit in architecture.: 

Antiquity built, numerous domes,: for it. constructed many 
vaulted circular halls.: The most. celebrated roo 
our. time and is the Pantheon of Rome,: called the Pantheon ¢ 
Asrippa (Figs.: 364,. 365),.: There on a very thick wall,: wise L 
hollowed out,: is turned a hemispherical dome about. 142 eval 
Giameter.; Thus as: required by the construction,: the soho 
calotte of the extrados is not, concentric with the intrados 
the thickness increasing with the distance from the vertex; 
then at. the critical part of the vault. where rupture might 
occur,: this: vault. is loaded by stepped masonry above the 
ternal wall,.: All this is admirably studied. for construction 
the architect has satisfied the construction,: neither. nore 
nor lLess.; 


Bb 4 
‘ 


And on this sufficient and necessary eunebeustaeel he has 
placed sheets of metal to cover the monument, without, any. 
for the external effect, or appearance; ; 

And that is all,. just. in the antique spirit.; Tudeed,: 1 
know of no edifice where the disdain of appearance and seek 


ioe? elorep: vs pei is? ase sk 
SN. ApLsss cert eae Tice £ be 


ee. Te as 
5 ef re ig iene Re eee ae 
SB eHECTES ae eh ees: pee “nee 


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Weeasibes eFive ve To paljetinoa iagoidihend 


biger- apenidsed ef 8 To! charnoice: 644 ro! Pea 
sta Bboasos ed) Te. POLE ogeoo Cie. oss yesiek 


ONE ae mye ,eee STS brave persis 
‘oystine: dens CIRC F. attepy i 
eesddac adoetic fer neaxe Ho ent sao tahe 
dot ead Rd dad open d Wy ious eed vl inen> 
oie oe ' 
63. pavolowe Emme VO od 51 Bet: $iyerac 
add Wa bob (noigewasenod “Yor ci ise 
iP besoqe: NOES ROT OXS Pegaso sosee¢ 
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ead &: ee idpedeceitin. tor ones ol Su be & 


e Gusods. woisen> paved heew isgs 
“ba “geege nor. Bako anneddacue 


| ae ett gaan paren 


pend soso 


| oth: patie: nee (60 st" 


tLe A foo eirtohior hci 30" wety ans aSEw 


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7 Bib dabc sit eet oe ‘NeEI Oo an Sas evsot gene 
aad od gies s ! Wait .doasie olde. 


252 ; 
for effect was carried farther than on the Pantheon of Rome 
It. was finished by marble facinss.: The monument thus receiy 
ed a surface decoration,: yet, absolutely novhing was desisne 
with the view of what moderns. call the outline or the pictu 
esque. ; 

By the beautiful works of M.; Chedanne,: I know that, the Pa 
theon now seen is onjy perhaps an unfortunate rebuilding of 
orecedins monument,: and that, still called Pantheon of Asrip 
is actually an edifice of the time of Septimus Severus.’ But. 
if I am very Srateful to M.; Chedanne for having corrected ¢; 
traditional admiration of the quite mediocre architectural — 
details of the eolonnade of the Pantheon,: yet; it no less re. 
mains, that, the composition of the rotunda must be nearly @& 
now seen,: for there is the antique spirit, absblute disdain 
of outline and effect.: (10h 250 

Not that I desire to state that antique edifices have nei: 
ther outline nor: external effect; onthe contrary,: they free) 
quently have much of these; but. by the force of things,: by | 
unsought. result. of means. employed to perfectly ensure the u 
tility of construction,: and by the intrinsic beauty of a su 
perior truthful exoression,: imposed in spite of all. That. ai 
echitecture first. seeks utility,: then magnificent: interiors. 
joyed by the people; at the service of that, magnificent: uti 
ity are placed the means of a powerful construetion; if the 
be a grand external effect,: outline and picturesgie appear= 
ance,: these are additional,: and because they could not be o 
erwise.; 7 | 

Such is again thot other admirable monument,: S.; Sophia 
Constantinople (Figs.; 366,: 367,: 368). With all its elements 
of construction and placed on one of the hills dominating & 
Bosphonus and the Golden Horn,: it. indeed produces: an admir= 
able effect.: What. seems to be composed so happily for appea 
ance and effect is: simoly the construction required,: withou 
a single stone not, indispensable to the construction.; Here 
again with construction alone,: nothings more nor less,: see t 
appearance of the monument,: admirable but; unsought,: neither 
sacrifice,: concession,: nor: even care for the appearance. — 

Now at a few steos from the Pantheon of Rome,: behold that 
other: monument,: also modern =~ S.. Peter of Rome (Fiis,: 569,: 
$70,: 371).; This. is: likewise a dome,: even"Zhe Dome” as the 


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emele OVisataoe& yisine # 2 eint contd Lae, Beg 
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 aidy Bedt.eds Benois oe excysabne ov lessee? 
Besta Bi er ive, end jadi nis ives af at 
Gpneenes (aos aevb cites “deel te-hae eat! 
 e|at Ao dale anied deitd 
gan eo. gino aT he god }pidagio | deat #59 
(ae. rehre ta, ba Wated exigent 


1 aa selat osnrey ed te ndbdtoognos ae 


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244 . 

Romans say. Consider it, now only for the dome,: for. its gen= 
eral composition will be treated later with religious archi- 
tecturs,: as well as §,; Sophia.: ~ 
Here the effect, is the entire programmne,: for"the dome" nol 
only indicates the church,: but. at a distance of 45 miles ans 
nounces the city of the. Popes,: and the cont recat: et ae 
in that city; it. is: made to be seen, its normal funetion an 
its reason for existence; it. is less the roof of the erect 
of all churches than the covering and sign of this centre te 
which converges fhe entire unity of: Catholicism.; . 
Thus it; is a roof =- a splendid one -— that. in chinakenaall 

a Michelangelo becomes the expression of the idea most, elom 
quently proclaimed by the architecture.,: 
What. a design of the outline (Fig.; 572)! How this monumen 
conceived for appearance is studied for apoearance! S,-: Pete: 
as a church, unfortunately kas partis: to be regretied,, notadl 
the principal facade, but, "the dome" is an absolute maste 
piece.; I. do not. know shetyer,. ac. (aptsbas target 
to raise the rotunda of the Pantheon on the vaults of the © 
Pemple of Peace,: perhaps merely a reported phrase,: but I D. 
know that. Michelangelo has produced a modern work,: with the 
good fortune that, cannot betray such an artist,: when hos own 
idea is that of his age and his civilization.: o> is tem 
ven at, Paris itself,: nothin’ is more elegant; in appearan 
or better announces the city than its beautiful domes,: tho 
of Val~de#Grace and of the Invalides, the Sorbonne in a Shel 
er desgree,: the Pantheon,: or more. correctly S.- Genevieve,: wit 
a different, order: of ideas.; oi 
1 cannot speak of roofs without, devoting a moment to spire 
Here asain roofs: of stone or metal are conceived for. effect, 
and outline.: Thais is a purely decorative element in the nil 
“<> er sense of the word,: the indication of the place of the © 
- chureh,: and without, seins into exagserations produced by th 
successive endeavors to surpass the. height, before eaanes: 
it. is certain that, the spire is a magnificent, element. of ou 
line and effect.; Paris does not. possess many,: the most. be a. 
tiful being that of the S.; Chapelle,: which is: not: the a 
of a great. church,: but, every one certainly knows some bea 
ful spire, lofty and slender, yet strong,: and who may not hha 
been impressed by the beauty of this motive? 


a 


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det tacos peteen yiguie aes gkinvtite Yo heave 
eichsciee eat bus sate sibhio ete 3G essed inete Saree sss 
Wen \jeastiibe ic sonstseqge e44 ta doonste 
3 hoe tie dargioge rose 16 nHrenr os 
ee a ‘Ginaba itd Wada. tin heaseiebex sau 
id at goa bag “doidrocory beasercze yi [tees Sid 
Feat iso gai A wite “og (inSicvoed si Woot & ~~ 
ema Hoyb ia bas sain asi 1d edcliiregdtg wid. foie 
ee dud 5 Wbisissgie I anciiibacs seals os ebeSET 
BeOS. ets Belen: soos io moheett ves eyowdsss 
p yinss Lo o¢Sigode leas gaattive bobtoehay 
d glo posses! {AYOR Bae beeen s vat joa Tia 
IOS a MAES ihe kid wo heoe ig wed ed 3007 
yaden 8 baa Boos ond So noienaas end 
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StFe DS HOG S67 leEasi’. ¥0 eves 6toa% ea 
aos h saenilinkes Sige -atd ‘Yecss of ie 
fees tebaenarsc egihe gd Geeiiste Os eeelest «.to9m 
oy or UeeL Ge fe et. pea te bet. ee. 
g loredoeiée ba dE tinge od ieoikel og fiw si 
; b. yifexrcdan mieoxocss ats “edt crohionyéenes | 
tel yeagbix. ede. eT ¢ si TO. bat we ano 6 a be SOE 
jLiainesseto - sa ticiios evas 228 Slelurv: BItEG | sa 
‘ ; ene toui geno pou peel face [x oo -ROLIatoosh ae 
egele. ade Babiens cer wont gated egia bas Osher a 
yeltey ety aibaifuce Seereato yertnos ens 63 G8 
> 508 sade to wold SOs 45: rgixie® B yaied:. 
to ee a ss OLS iyo bss evuiwetgas eteneog: <> 
#nt be, on ape a ail yeemeD and eistopsh ot laniges ee 
ralinte < fusiiceed ov4 O8idw jo bia enh 2 aa 


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234 4 

I shall treat these subfécts with more. detail,: domes and 
spires,: when I speak of the churches with which these ele= — 
ments are connected.) At. present I merely desire to indicate: 
the use to be made of them for outline and decoration,: | 

I have sought. to show by these examples that, roofs,: under: 
Stood by antiquity as’ a simply useful element,: have become 
architects of the middle eges and the Renaissance a beautifi 
element of the appeapance of edifices, new richness added 
the means of erchitectural effect.: 

But. understand fully,: that this: baauby is: in ‘se use,: in 
the frankly expressed proportions,: and not. in the ornamenta- 
tion. A roof is beautiful or. ugly by its. outline,: its inclin 
atioh,: the proportions of its hips: and ridges.; Ornament, adds 
little to these conditions of appearance,: but if the ornanen 
destroys that. freedom of effect,: makes the appearance heavy, 
undecided outlines that, should be clearly marked,: then the a 
chitect. has injured his work; instead of a boldly accented 
roof,: he: has placed on his edifice a confused mass,: injuring 
the function of the roofs and their effect,.- 

The sreat. roofs of: the preceding centuries were generally 
designed with much sobriety,. and perhaps their effect is the 
more monumental, the mors simple and less decorated they are 
The roofs have: by themselves such an effect of oubline,: that 
this: is itself the most, magnilicent, decoration of: the monu»— 
ment.) Useless to overload it,: thw ornamentation must at leas 
be: judicious in all cases,: . 

It will be logical to apply it, to structural parts of the 
construction,.; Thus the ecrockets naturally decorate the hips,< 
just. as the crestins ornaments the ridge.; Not. only are these 
oaris: visible and thus authorize ornamentation,: but further 
decoration so placed. does not. obstruct the flow of water,: 
ridge and hips being lines separating the slopes of the roof, 
On the contrary ornament, applidd in the valley is: nonsense, 
Seing a barrier to the. flow of water,: besides beins’ placed if 
&® concave angle in a bad position to be. seen, It is again . 
logical to decorate the domes,: whith arse accented in the out 
line,: and of which are. beautiful examples;. similarly for the 
gutters crowning the facade.; But; one understands less the ors 
namentation,: that seeks the least. details, such as the open= 
ings for mere ventilation. In brief,. whether for. roofs or any 


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236 
CHAPTER V., ACCESSORIES OF ROOFPS,: 
SUMMARY,; == Valleys.: == Gutters, == arrangene to bal 
avoided.; «= Location of the sutter.; -« Balustrades,: «« Con= 
ditions of establishins sutters,, »« Leaders. »« Access to roa 
ow Walks. »= Access to attics,; «- Dormers, =m Chimney caps.) 
~- Pediments and sgables,: . . 


Si ai 


Although the theory of architecture comprises: all elements 
serving for. the construction of edifices,: I do not have to 
enter here into the details of the construction of roofs.) Bi 
their: arransement has a great. importance in the design of a 
project.; From this: point of view, I. have to present, some ob-« 
servations.: | 

In speaking of composition in general and then as the arm 
rangement, of the roofs,: I have stated that, it was useful for 
the plan by its simplicity to permit: a prompt. removal of the 
water. On the roofs themselves with sufficient. inclinations 
are no sreat. difficulties in this: respect,; Thus the ridges . é 
and hios,: the convex angles formed: by the roof plenes requir 
great care in the execution,: but, are not a danger to the buil 
insg.: The danserous parts are the valleys and particularly th 
gutters,: the valley beins only a mors inelined Sutber,: alway 
being the channel for the water from the roofse; — 4 

Th inclination of the valley is always less than that, of — 
the roofs served,: and if these are low,: the valley is yet. lo 
er,: but, if the inclinations are considerable,: the valley is. 
enclosed as the ansle between thr: roofs becomes acute.: The 
valley is unavoidable but, presents dangers; it must be wide 
and easily emptied,. and if a low inclinajion is sufficient, 
for a simple plane roof,: the same slope no longer suffices i 
the intersections of roofs require valleys.: 

In seneral,: it. may be said,: that. the most, satisfactory com 
bination for roofs is: the gable roof or the shed roof,: ter 
inated by a gable at each end,: then thethip roof either oblo 
with ridge or pyramidal. Difficulties result, from the inter- 
section of roofs,: which cannot, be avoided and that, must, be 
studied with prudence,: : 

Bub much more dangerous still is the Sutter: between two 
roofs,: an actual horizontal valley.: The least, obstacle thers 
to the flow of the. water has very dangerous results, for if 


od Tete Geitibe pire a 1ofteict sid evarrecve’ ree 
Sayan ts ra iay ‘eis #entets etaitduh aol ectsxid 

<i an /encesat eres ons 367 
gooo ‘hal ES. sak Yo Veen vibes. oidtesag Ai Hloeva aed?” 

mesn te: eee piaat cetuiad etesioy. etogieb ecedt as} 00! 
i i (ge0e. ¢lirsopesi ood aise i se0x8 ‘eifaw bre 
Migesen Geer 640 ni tiac%) sedsuh edd feds edol 

(Je 2 Yieorsoe “soonest Spodiiv-: toa syents Bf 
eke en ded “.e1sdd0h sik move seline sxis exoe- te 
Reieqedteg «+ i teed erg 36 nobgonysenge Yo enoisch 


a 
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ros: duo ihgeotseovst of% ui 1903402 ssefou th eh) 
a Pidnespet? gl sacisourdanoy edd ehleduo cuvpves 
edhe pas? wece ul @tdd dod .jebred te fedsasn af Sail : 
Rot pea Betiueoo ,gnehicss oni gsiinvisoes at bre afer 
<a onic famios adtwioaas don bivos iesew e083 
s Sal eVUET 2dhockiv baw yici 
AR TOO Gs weblion erode gacddus ni yiaviacs edt gb 
yen fads. {aponen geen ov evetk YIsv ae . 
§ to 9298" Bend Yah eane Osis QBnoi a Ot le Bog 
) eta Bisaiboi {bs ie vitieats ‘eqaixsd,fiea 
d bs & ae (8G thed toon ot moatidgg +3630 edt at seeol 
cog aaaage Magen sadena aveo eff-,yibo @f asdadwe 
pga 96y went ev igos Latase eg -VY4ev 6 smos 
snes eirene e892 bente} fsaned> « ei weddop ent 
ks: Utes bas tedaw sd! ev ienet ae pos 6. 0 Jevsa 
Basahseses abcheonsde elst ‘yveouadal®‘s sitvornadio 
Ba Ave2 iu Boaee bas: ,cucrsaieh ylemervixe “— .exade 
Ke mi Medgen endailia to eetqs ase dasekecspiers Again 
sa Moo), Hered’ 0215 ic saiddny ys noféguagado 
pbedgatiado yteve Kol “.isox?. yd boz . .ebvids to 
“apeet a Pe bebivows. od Jdaum sins “bas 
2 oils cred site 3 Theboet36 3d dediut edd Ilade wok 
O gsat» obenst desel ob {Liw awoltisvo 3o eeunsap 
"Hedaee bebnéqeue eid ecoslgsi 1adasd att jetsoe? 
“Vievseser9 tetii dud. wolpastgxe fis ddoavacs 
veins? vicstedidut bebneqsue edt Jousesnssel 
— aeniied yeiius bebaeqadz beroltyeve tA 
id gvod, 0 weizod odt tr epee oid. viisea ed 
i st PERF wet inninen i,iiew eds to enst wsit 


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237 
it, overflows,: the interior of the edifice: will be. injured.) 
Likewise for gutters against, the valle, (sl 
for the same reasons.: | ~~ a 
Then avoid if possible arrangements of roofs giving’ occass 
ion for these dangers,: Sutters between roofs or between ar 
and wall.; Exagple# are too frequently seen in your projects : 
Note that, the gutter itself in the most normal conditions 
is always not. without danger.) Searcely a structure does not: 
at some time suffer from its gutters.; Let us examine the com 
ditions of construction of the best,: «» perhaps of the: leas! 
Dade: : eg 
The simplest. gutter is: the eave-troush,: best, practically 
because outside the construction.) It. frequently happens thai 
a Sutter is choked or: bends,. but, this is seen at, the first ~ 
rain and is repaired.) The accident, occurred outside,: and as” 
the water. could not: reach its: normal outlet, it overflows v: 
ibly and wifhout; injury.; | i 
On the contrary in gutters above walls,: especially intern 
walls,. injury has very grave consequences,: that. may only ap: 
pear after a long time.; Some day the traces of dampness: in : 
hall,: perhaps: richly decorated,: indicate the existence of a 
leak in the sutter,: perhaps for months.; But, the suspended — 
gutter is usly,: the eave Sutter never: chokes and may even bi 
come a very beautiful motive,: that, you cannot, do without.; F 
The gutter is a channel formed the entire lensth of the — 
eave of a roof to receive the water and carry it to the lea 
often quite a distance.; This: channel is: sometimes: in hard 
sLone «= extremely danserous,: and stone sutters: must, be line 
with metal. But, in spite of all,: the sutter: is: exposed to 
obstruction by rubbish or dirt,: leaves from trees,: nests: 
of birds,: and by frost.: Now every obstructed gutter overflo 
and this must. be. provided: for.; : a 
How shall the sgtter be arranged? Just. where the conse» 
quences of overflows will do. least, damage,: i.e.,. outside the 
facade.) The gutter. replaces the suspended gutter: by a more 
monumental expression,: but must preserve if: possible the ha. 
lessness of the suspended gutter.; 4 
An overflowed suspended gutter injures nothingy: and it, wil 
be nearly the same if the gutter be above the cornice,: outsi 
the face of the wall.; Logically,: that. is its proper place, 


> 
“ 
wn 
ate 
oy 


wee od Yon slatiang be0deses y liaed) 
nas ob Ls: bas (EXE, WIR)? Sis ir cash 
cane osie? aid de ts Lew ex: ,{2%e 

aed. Sheds ne sx enivretio yieiidde viz] 

@ We said. Wen Qh if ine usd vam aig Veber 
See. Sanne MPIIG8e5 VEST oF. MHIe AD? 
estos ers bax bene Sithin- et Yo eoilivindc gy 
‘E eicod to eos aot Sov des Gihaeabe cer sores 


peel Ad Bo-Genkesd ch Sai csl yroisd ef 
joss ote gat add ootaganl 4 ean tb-eied of bel ei 
more,’ . eS veee bas shin ebes 64 
es ei qesenh Siac as Safed Snonvie <i lesth 

el dette. iter ead ievods ket S84 Sie -<SiPiesn sfs 
, bind ade se i .wotaios eid evods » 
PROT gyey 967 Sedsrh # to acwensving 
- “seetbade Seey Wa t4ecge yl ineupe1? 
ids: sodine. Rheletetiet we inlets 

bhis etd de dntce eis a redtivd ats 
Peers ig benifen? esén ayvewin don e7e 
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a Sehosd £e068 5G) -4o 254)! £n6 is avons 
dos iieda. aa a mead Hongo apt teniioas fue 
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Visoecs iF he 


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> eigemanee bes @odied of6 ison: oc Sinvose yott 
eda the 8G. eel PUL TeRoe ro YTRAASSS Te sstdand 


ee Ge meer (eee tat 
| i ee ab eat Kedhis a 2% Pitre gid: yet ieais 
Le PaeS i Fe Par i 
ax Silas 8 oF sno sidvto-adoned viv no GabGeg 
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$ tues So tict 2 aceieocn veda ens oF 
ay ae Hparete: edd 
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etalvdacos nett aedd wethid ed Tony. 


é 238 ae 
being that. of the drip above the antique cornice; a very 
frankly accented example may be seen at the Library of teem 
Genevieve (Fis.; 374) and also at the School of Fine ie (PF 
375), as: well as at, the Palace of: Justice.: a 

It. is entirely otherwise when the Sutter is behind a balui 
trade.; This may be,: and I do not, think of proseribing a mod 
for which so many beautiful examples exist,: such as most, of 
the churches of the middle ages and the monuments: of the 
French Renaissance, or of the time of Louis XIV.: But then ¢] 
Sutter is rarely-against; a wall and special precautions m 
be taken.: Further,: as: because of the balustrade itself,: one 
is led: to take it. as a walk;: so that it. is necessary that. i 
be: made wide and easy-.; Nt 

Finally without, being eneased,. the gutter is seb, back of — 
the cornice and rather above the wall,: which is not. so g00d 
as if frankly above the cornice,, 1 state in detail the rem 
quireuents of a gutter,: for very erroneous indications: of: it 
frequently appear in your studies.: . aa 

Assuming a rather lons gutter and two leaders,: there is i 
the sutter. a hish point, ah the middle and two slopes,: whieh 
are not. always mere inclined planes,: for the gutter has ster 
required by the use of metal (Fig. 376).; At, the proper dis= 
tances at the laps of the metal bands are formed steps with 
slisht. inclination between them.; If an obstruction raises 
the water no higher than the steo,: there is no danger,: but, 4 
it; exceeds the step,: even if far: below the top of the ‘uke 
it would leak between the metal sheets,: As 3: aa 

Ontlets are arranged to prevent. this daugeepubel are usual 
ly placed at, the top of the sutter,: and are then useless.; — 
They should be near the bottom and just below each step.; . 

Another necessary precaution is that; the Sutter next the 
roof be higher than its front,: to obviate the inconvenience 
of leaks.; DASse ; 

Finally,: the height of the gutter has a mininum ativide/ a 
pending on the length of the slopes,; The high point must be 
an inch or so below the front. of the gutter,: and from thene 
to the leader should be a fall of about 2 per cent,: includi 
the steps.; « - 

Leaders form a great. difficulty in the desisn of pecnaeal 3 
Most frequently they are omitted, but, although the oroblem b 


b satctnebes eet igoigte to @filidigeog 8 
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worn eee Sit nl betquatJe sav isan Suis 
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:) MS oi done + eban’ Be gavin: enotiadts 9 sbusision 
j debsaco fos Hedin divoovs:  -Pievit.de-ce wilt’ 
i init siaethw-odt ef to%). Vershool Adin stem od 
seas mas alth es: Bigwin yd Jom yiniedis> Santois 
die sadio wo el ine Les basolose ershess 
aieeilien ‘gles ioeds si seu bas geotezaan 
eredu od bhigode etht obtent sot nna ie gs 
eo sano taes even don yok daeh foos ‘As -etedd bode 
pa Tau: goed gontroaos wisd aa £% sidingeses 


wag whisiitts -bivoo oaedtiore: oda ved 
Je enolmetary fsute dirt edd) Ae. aoe 
HO" en et WHE SO QKeTIS Beat .etshae 


Boaokseeno vids 0% etatsie dor 90 
nit fas has stoi ser Jeon si gvd \,eodad 
goedidos ies) eres EON SS RIVeETS 


s aaa us ania Beg Miogminy to) Gestsoan 
t #107. Sg oat aa? oJ Badece tie dedsiad See 
1 ots id Oy IOS. GASRHSOER prt ees: jos cHSs ond 
ate r Wate tres. floss. $toVine? tenes fhe? Be wih Mad 
pie els. dud. Yte wybodaeth “ae0as et vies, toi 

Hot wehash eet Qecnion 9 ehetasg et7 woud 


gts. #5 gyeio agin poghin bre gre dao® 


ts e reise cod: oe gonigh Be iew aes 
Syig or intivesord saebe19. speek 


— ciiew pease re) od Medhas 
ben oi anon es able ei a, 


Cae Toe 1eersid ads. 6 eigas sie ai jlowe 


‘yebece? 63) no wed Adinode Jor 


| eae eeien de da oe I ofl sehunteavoa edd sevat 


Revers Sailigiv: ixeae est aerigpet emaeth: 


| uo 207 gent tiheo esos te? bot lupen cavibal im 


A —s - 4 
ya te =) ee i 
a, ie © 4 

’ in| : 
ae PO ee 


259 | 7 an 
difficult, it is not, insoluble; yet. it must be considered | 
first, for frequently in the composition itself will be fot 
a possibility of arranging leaders. The difficulty is inere 
ed with internal gutters.; Beware of a multitude of very sed 
tive motives attempted in the past,: when leaders did not, ex 
and which are incompatible with the necessary element.: ag 
multitude of citations might: be made,: such as a circular 
ole,: as at Tivoli,: a court with colonnade;. how should they | 
be made with leaders? How is the water removed from the Me 
eleine? Certainly not; by simple means: or those exempt, from 
Leaders eaclosed in walis == often attempted =«— are very 
dangerous and must; be absolutely avoided,: When it is desire 
to place them inside, this shovld be where supervision is e 
and where an accident may not: have serious results.; Actwal © 
accessible flues have sometimes been built. with ladders.; 
Such is the angle of the Library of 5S,.:; Genevieve (Fis.; 377), 
where the architect. could skilfully profit. by the intersec= 
tion of the internal projections of the edifice to locate t 
leaders,: This arrangement is irreproachable,: which permits — 
not; showing them on the facade.” | ; i 
Do not. mistake, for.this question may seem of little imp 
tance,: but, is most. serious,: and if the composition has nob 
provided for this, the architect, exposes a to grave d 
appointment.’ $i fox a 
Another. very Tape ction questhon in bhe arrangement. of> bull 
ings is that, of access to the roofs.: For maintenance,: sw 0 
ing and repairs,: it, is necessary to go on the roofs without 
building an external scaffold each time,: . i 8 age 
‘Not, only is access necessary but, also walks,: for wianonie 
them,: the passage of workmen is a danger for the men and in- 
jures the coverings,., Horizontal walks are determined by the 
sutters and ridges with steps on the slopes.: then the ae 
Sramme requires frequent, visits, even of daily inspeection,: 
these walks cannot. be too. seriously studied.) _ 
These orudent precautions are always useful, and they sn8 
even required for some edifices.; Thus on theatres ,: it; is” 
prescribed to arrange walks protected by railings,: 
It, is also an imperative necessity for glazed roofs,: whose 
maintenance igs always dangerous,. but, still more so unless wi 
ly arranged walks permit, to repair with all possible safety 


‘ o— WA i iar ae Age. S|, wa eee . ee al ee 
pet ’ yo b eet 2 & = Sad 7, ee + Ca 

Pe pi sate) BS ete Re ee Gi a Be) ee 
ve . f ee he Be eR ee ie eee © 


—— i te ea Ps (sees edd 39 Wisels: wt 
yltese ie gele deve c3501-ted¢ cele bbe 1” 
9s sdtitebay obhe gre ho ob od tdekoltise oo nt 
av a ates ‘Yo etelied #dee 10. sci no extoiehsW ais 
} aro Bh mesg ydiuct3 1's jeaxp délw vino sas onen 
wi di Madeodey. (tooo bag guiiieo sis nnovded 
bss Hateab eds. (RVARIOH sat sedwesdid 


is GnG, 2o0t tiene «, y5. vadaniwres Sas oto5R 
eis suasnh aie: Bo soe? ots givaguges) Jeok ato 
i oo%. aeetR edd os Penlot. bas eacole oud yd be 
fg ovods oor, oid to $eiile? tedew edt seve Liev 
Medew sit aah ‘ahel bee dokin de Vis. avords sed 
| 19%. ei ide ‘noah oe welyheiss so dith of bowoils 
a 8d to. Bietiod.iadnempios das7h oid enst One 
s1.et3 fo. epekg 4% Wh,.edit eposscisss: Te ae) 
pfomexe Seate yoaetle avai L j.peeuan ileis Xe 
6 OOM 4 cau ae t Si: yee Sal ts todd 80 en 


‘ jo pose Paap i ead ggone 
Bdacelitvosl so igaed 30).f8\E 22th) 
peut skon COSR 653) Baeiden tay eo7 to 
? te. fasiiver bai wObdie studs ateode 
Oo” Re anok. Le BO ge etoie neo kag. ¥d x90 
cecarinenaia mt Bind: etahert ato midia des 
nde Kiaseocs Ve sxeoml, «yas 
Xt at yd .. pea tee? meet np alr eR 
emaor fons aie prose byeaae te ina sheoe odd 


< neaaey ane aeyvedern aes adi Fo efhhin one 
#20 co Le eaoiLived PLAES: efit. dot eeso efi el 


gidasupext ocd yhode so gi sad? .baaghs 


feats pa i Bak bn toests0% ga eetainng ulieaia wal 
yifben Ee end $8 PORD ye wrt ETO ig. xidasupes? got 


4 Dap ate 1a dedd doe yies 6d. od ibiea ous, ave 50. 
a cal st 19%) Adshwt OF voi tints 


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at. Myodziv eretie bodgutaeds boo Ysa ees boa Ne 


P Gs a: . ah TBE ekih ®) oe ai 
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>» In regard ba roofs, the chimney caps should again ear mene 


240 | aaa 

the Sélazins of the rae ior haa 
I. add also that. roofs nust. also be easily soc eudis tena 
is not, sufficient, to go on,: but. also under the roof.; Thus 
the Madeleine or the Orleans Gallery of Palace Royal,:e wor 
man can only with great, difficulty pass in the small space 
between the ceiling and roof,: yet. this is necessary.) 
Likewise for dormers,: the design must; always provide for 
moval of water.; The dormer. is a window enclosed by wood or 


stone and terminated by a small roof penetratingthe large | 


one.) Most. frequently the face of the dormer is a gable cove 
éd by two slopes and joined to the sreat roof by two small 
valleys.; The water falling on the: roof above the dormer: is, 
then thrown off at, right and left.: then the water is simp] 
allowed to drip or Ssarsbyles are used,: this is very simple, 
and thus the great; monumental dormers of the middle ages a 
of the Renaissanecs: rise in the plane of the facade crowned 
by their masses.) 1 have already cited examples of great, dor 
mers,: that, are in a way gables;- in the more ordinary funcyi 
of dormer windows are found infinite examples.; 1 will cite 
among the French chateaus, those of the Chateau of Tanlay 
(Fis.; 378),: of Mansion Ecoville at, Caen (Fis.: 379),: and the 
of Fontainebleau (Fis.; 380) next, the garden of Diana; it. ev 
occurs that, a window in a vertical story forms a sort. of dc 
mer by its cap alone,: as on the House of Consuls a 
But, with our. leaders,: this: is impossible without, one for é& 
bays) He are then compelled to carry the sutters across th 
dorners.; That is less beautiful,: but, is frankly a » areal 
the facade and almost interdicts sreat, monumental windowse — 
They remain quite possible at the end facades of a bays omg 
the middle of its lensgth,: wherever the sutter has a high po 
for. it may be interrupted there without. inconvenience.) Such 
is the case for the angle pavilions of the Cite Hall of: Pal 
is (Fig.: 381).: 


tioned.: That, is a study too frequently neglected, and the r 
ity cruelly punishes the architect,: who has not, foreseen it 
Too frequently the chimney caps are treated as nesligible,: 
or even are said to be ugly,: and that all desiiin would he 
sterile. No indeed,: for it, is certain,: that, chianey caps. 
ssen and count for much in the appearance of thes sade naan 


ska: aes Yan vade Sait tite bese eae ai 
id edits ,sovisou fw Yidnosa to ‘stnensio site seve 
a FEN) chapsed ee Wecisi0 io aysantdo tesnewsaca 
jade itd 2d ted VAEBE {uh9) eliivatadtsh iesdadd te 
‘to. ERBE + 8TT) Paedaad+ to. (SSF .HL4) s4a0A cee dad 
d sy bss jyeaose- te aeort fo noilived bas ffat 
td Voaneul veol fiiv boavtast syenatide sas 


aN ja deari bas elgais qtov seora signaxd 
> add 6eqca8 dou [ilw uay base ¥¢adasoed ons vers 
edd Goum ood evedt wo! .agins6 dieds gata: soften 
pis) Adee eenatde gnisytine ‘jashaosd atwoy. faly 


eae eda sysel Bysimins * bshsoa0 fo SaissedA 
rgole edd Yo GéiionsiS oid Pi 2k gso eit to ddbt 
¥ oft oO? gao ont vd Beaodge Sslostede cas besa 
Paget eLidu. vaeguacidd aii’ ad bheouwtet si es 
d-e4i tne aif aeto° ods 0 Indmosiiad a 16 
284 feetse og mad to yan Das vous Sse tod 
r ge Gas Hatied Foyaicaoo oF gestd RS eT 
$6 3. one Watnd od eveif[av ovd atin oor 
: ae pete “«e@oectla Jacisit ise e Adin 
BG edd Torade ls: anBe xhujesdd vd neds ‘sh el 
@eeud telianoy Slvodd voy dedd asitote se 
ont tied OAs ai-medds etives¢. Jefimveg adkdizogaoo 
pptsce isi? “eengteeicy isiivpes ef dishes sired eit 
Fr ao Geri? iitw sqsc youttide ed to bas etoos 
febentinnuts. es eo% enelg “wot al bedaobs sven 
PEt yanditetsbiasso Yosh isy ‘eid ed Jou fiw szedT 
ye etd Hoy yeaig Pool? bacotk asoy to Jsaomehnsats 
Thin oy elfen bis to wotteool edt ni ‘ydite lp 
Ye ayteeb ed nord Ynbtinaes ysloaiTTis ead 
y sertoar gids to. eintos Stentars tebai goOTd Sotvaet 
Be ipevet?: ages sid aataeh of woy 102 nieher Yin 
Wedudnd of .Yautife & jshd wood voy woll 
wianebeibs eit etaninoh taum yedons | tn sdYero 


Tal 


i vi sited! Bio VE YL hive gee etsuescem ans ayenmide 


‘aia a 4 jews jebane® Heat teontead' sbocatowo Ty S48 2 Toor 
‘ ms Abie lauan Yorstde xwo% <.\lofuloess FP \aqeSpe* tees 


if to Sogkessous 645 ws studtasnos Ilise véte- 


‘90 Besta! gene detdw hae ,¢svore aso saijsson 


oe maent ithe Pind es ee es 


® , 7 Wi 
& : Pat 
cs) * 
it 


241 
is also certain, that they may be arranged and be treated,: 
even being elements of heautiful motives,: like the beautiful 
monumental chimneys of Chateau S.; Germann (Fidé.; 382),those © 
of Chateau Martainville (Fig.; 383),: both of brisks,: those of 
Chateau Anet (Fis.: 384),: of thambord (Tis: 385),: of the City 
Hall and Pavilion of Flora of stone,: and many others. Even 
the chimneys desisned with less luxury but respect for neces 
sity still contribute to the appearance of the monument, for 
example those very simple and frank at, Fontainebleau.; Then | 
they are necessary and you will not: escape the iia 
neglecting their design. You have too much the habit of st 
ying your facades, omitting chimney caps,: an ol’: deen 
nothing can excuse, and which must indeed be renounced, 

Abatting or engased,: chimneys leave the roof best if the — 
width of the cap is in the direction of the slope of the ro 
indeed the obstacle opposed by the cap to the flow of the: wa 
ier is reduced to its thickness, while if it. pierces’ the rot 
on a horizontal of the plan,. its entire breadth stops the wW 
ter and snow,: and may often be several yards.: In this case 
it is best: to construct behind the cap a little penetrating 
roof with two valleys to throw the water to each side, and 4 
with a sufficient, slopes: 9 

It is then by the study g6urhplahsnef the ground and oth= 
er. stories,: that you. should consider these caps,: and if your 
composition permits,: provide them in the best direction,: 
Thus here again is required foresight. The appearance of the 
roofs and of the chimney caps will first depend on the arrar 
ment, adopted in your plans for the distribution of the walls 
These will not be the primary considerations,: but, if in the 
arrangement, of your. ground floor plan,: you have ensured reg- 
ularity in the location of the walls, you will no longer ha 
the difficulty resulting from the design of roofs with flu 
issuing from indeterminate points of the roofs,: and it will 
only remain for you to desisn the caps thenselves,.: a 

Now you know that. a chimney, to not. be exposed to reverse 
drafts of smoke,: must. dominate the adjacent, ridges. Then hij 
Ghimneys are necessary,: especially if the inelinavions of t 
roofs are pronounced,; One must not evade the programme,: but, 
must, accept. it. resolutely.,: Your chimney caps will count ir 
the appearance of your edifices; do not leave that to chance 


is ph cstD ot oats ede da va ,taenels fergiseiiiow 


oe oe ~aiedio Yase bas 
i sods a hs aiei na isido.ct éiasttYth st st 
_ agereerannd Rank yeings eid to asia sant 
Yi eutiost Ssuseront Jadd ,ysetisios sldstehiadeo 
soiiqnos wind. to: Wehige ovty of :.boble sysals ef 
b ylgsaauoys Yidenoeess bas adelamoo yi18¥ *« didéa 


abe ie Nwode ed dim tsdu ‘to aentverg olgata 
ty: ‘wuktibs desta & to gives -efs 
| to cn itiade! eit 419% boviseey ever t’. jgiisnt’ 
Recs. dguoddia ,~ptnomibeq bas seidsh od adicsieg 
‘ Qs ‘edenibiodus sels shea edf cuedd eevsoed :,.eflew 


emEpoaye ons mich ‘tae sectined e@idtoncieg al 


i abeatase ssh. gi exliivo-gecdw ,ifey dsext s 
‘ ae a) Gane ee eared qunto “t to. toot 
vay -.ehsod 4 od £2 Sstiesoue: oat 
en ayeulsa bieode eios® tO duemibed 

gah #9610) mas assctovea baa ,ta0% 
soba. Ehbis 


2h oe Suseihec alt to yaneod oid. eet 


Won» wove beaotaucos 4 edenieg seed Laoigoi eds 
Pca yedoivesiiodi beonucnasy ciia igeuthe¢ a siaxe 
wre, BIRO. qhdesivey Letacessto ylowq eds Yo can odd 
‘etgi excitantion? vol todvad gtk to ealdstteneg 
eid, bas Tayon: edaied .sivcod iii ta ee , 1001.78 
pdnedibeg @ neve visnoupet? qe) sods», {88S 4 887) 
ai. Ab apatbfiad aedkid 6 wort Qattostorg ovis 
i ar30b 9 EBOTO ylesem. #5 iishe. co ,lias # od 
7 ; 35 Ltom {eigensars eos 
halons gt ogteebh et! aseaoits at ogo 


g Seen et lis 30 aidon jaos ena east 


io PL aie, ‘ol? gon idove ¥edi “64 cenes bad 


dno adsvene beastie 02. ons gnpnnes 
as ana Seat oes Gs 
ae eS ee ener he 
ae SO OED Vee tat Pare 


BS Hit) fayod goslel “Yo etoor oft Yo calivoq & 


sei a BIGOT 


eo xsiubuetné ¥lievsy eis acted alse .” 


f hnol #O5 bib Roldizoyuco tiadd net cove .205ed" 


nan s8qt ytsoribsg {ono teat ond) Ta:, goteth 
séetevan wlsoyaig ad daa diogat we ae baa 25) 
“yin drew tbe g ede o8 tsilwoag pégemerastts ove 


242 
and remember that, a.chimney flue may become a beautiful 
architectural element, as at the Louvre,: the City Hall] 
and many others,) 
It. is difficult to obtain an idea of all the details requil 
ring a plan of the roofs; inean important. edifice, this is a 
considerable entirsty,: that, increases in time,: for something 
is always added. To give an idea of this complication,: I ex. 
hibit a very complete and reasonably accurately drawn plan of 
a portion of the roofs of Palace Royal (Fig.; 386).; 1b, is a 
Simple psecimen of what, might. be shown by many other plans o: 
the roofs of a great, edifice.; Ao 
vay Finally, I have reserved for the study of roofs questions 
eS relating to gables and pediments,: although these are parts of 
ee walls,: because there the waklssare subordinate to the 
Tt _. roofss; 


a e In principle,: pediment and gable are synonymous terms,: ale 
$f ~~ Ways. being the usually triangular arrangement of the top of 
om a front. wall,: whose outline is determined by the adjoining ¢ 
“~~ voof,: or in other terms,: it is a transverse section of fete 
Y_ roof appearing on the facade; 
3 Pediment, or gable should always have the same slope as thel 
eit roof,: and such are the Greek pediments and the gables of the 
middle ages,; 
>» Yet, the beauty of the pediment motive has seduced met 
Ot heats eran when their composition did not lend itself to | 
its logical use; perhaps by accustomed eyes,: we go not, tol 
erate a pediment with pronounced inclinations;. from this cam 
the use of the purely ornamental pediment,: often even by the 
penetration of its rather low inclinations into a much pteep 
er. roof,: as at the Louvre,: Palace Royal and Place Vendome 
(Fig.: 387),: ete.: Very frequently even a pediment crowns a mo- 
tive projecting from a higher building;- it. ig then attached — 
to a wall,: or again it mersly crowns a doorway, Window,: or 
some ornamental motive,.: : 
But in all cases its design is always controlled by a trae 
‘dition of the rational pediment,: i.e. ,: of the Greek. pediment, 
and it, is important to properly understand the reason for the 
arrangements peculiar to the pediment.: 
fake the most noble of all,: the Greek pediment (Fig.: 388).: 
Cohumns are completed and the entablature set; on each of — 


anew sano 


" a oe re - eae 
‘ ok aeng Y i ate tage 
7 J aie 43 ; i. : As i cabal oa ae - 
© 


eobie seatint ‘oud gid so ere 
aa ba eue . took 
} Sat kag dhddenbeos’ pre ae as. eau a0 
Pineex 30) exee @htajeeides qeitgue isd qd, hoawere 
led 1 ieivbastat ‘eands ylaupiido enwots soinios. 
Y vilatuen AE baa ~alisx: s. gill, suegthes aie lance 
: t100°-00n7 of @bitt bas e1se eit wensty ows yo 
ve eetannes: & RAGt BOY» Wnettheg agizcyge ent ‘Yo 
Ti “ee aged edt 24 Sgbis Saidoaxredat 
ikon i mptbedutntt Jon eteciiibe add dot 
| tO. 8 20; beqgote bd. ten eesatvtiad..oeody 1004 
. pe eee? dadt- avo eds od Lfin, eid? Matias on i 
meds ra le ypoInIeS O87 To tdon.-b0a8 toes 
ose _sgaasives bie G0. bas w= daskibed eid’ ao auat 
a Enrhaues wonte:: oo atOm LSITORLIOR 2iF LO ERYO BA 
hoa Bt etest .ectniad eiad 


24 efi3 nosddng’ oti a6 ee geAw enol 


. a. ebne add tod getd j;assltatnn va 26 
5 ado.8 Lamexs Bia Ghiineehid Gq ences, O44 alanagas 
‘. qeidres ‘to ie sextiedus bee gadis seven esti? 
3 “setias: 139) 20% etee ods awh anon duemphass 
ag. pista to. pei steogeos Isldinft edd sf Hove 

“iepnse. I. wousg. bas facizol yladbiozds soidle 


<a igniehhet ert to elias. odd medi olyusne iw liduasd. 


HOléptodass edd, pork bapetiod - Ah PSE oe ee tL fosedd 
noldeenp * wm tuttolos end e4adss4 of daenos. ow 


: open ‘bwe noldvesxe to ysifion’? tct a2éed 
eat to- gelblucsn. dead reid. Nithbec of Sol etex 


batass od: ot ladaox ltod iF pox 

; ea to anny ans 8 Fat i) a old de gets estargo: Ietnos 

| aa ado (LEE varia faguon trod 
‘Yo dreo Saal RE anne. 


ri “7 es Ve, | ae > i! Pel Lee Le te Ol ee 7 
vas Tee Sots i a daa hay Na ie Wey SD) ok a ha: 


y assae9 roe aguboed a one dn Nl keeca 
eo: taxzesal deedd to dignel eitvgs ed. 


# : s 
tes oad nend 2PVS2 aidetes a ¢d ¥ faas? 


2. arte Mo prod off <.So llth delt. 2 yd Sostguiawed 
ides 81 sctatco, ods bas 608k sagt) Bel iloos 


: i fee Ne heat onl! an teLiih sons eae xa ‘hente 


243 _ 
its four facades the monument is terminated by a cornice, 6) 
that on the two longer sides receiving the guttere of the 
roof. 

On the front, and rear facades,: the walls should be again 
crowned by triangular gables;: the same (or nearly the same) 
cornice crowns obliguely those triansular parts,: forming the 
complete pediment like a wall. And if: mentally you connect 
by two planes the ears and ridge to the corresponding lines 
of the opposite pediment,: you form a perfect, prism with the 
intersecting ridge at, its top.: | ] 

Yet, the edifice is not, finished,: for: it. still requires tna 
roof,: whose thickness must be stopped by a projection above — 
the gables,.: This will be the. cyma,: that. forms a part, of the — 
roof and not: of the cornice.: | 

Thus on this pediment -- and on all pediments «=« there igs 
no cyma on the horizontal cornice,: since there is no roof on 
this cornice,.;} There is only a cyma on raking cornices,: but, 
it is returned horizontally on the cornices of the lateral 
facades,: where it becomes the Sutter. of the roof,: either: for 
the entire lensth of thest, lateral facades,: or: at the ends : 
alone,: when as on the Pantheon the water: from the roof falls 
frecly by a simple eave; then the laterel cornices aré crown- 
ed by antefixas,: that, form the ends of the cover tiles,: that. 
separate the rows of tiles.: In the example considered,: the. | 
tiles,: cover tiles and antefixas are of marble,: but the ar-~ 
rangement remains the same for terra cotta.: i@ 

Such is the initial composition of every pediment; a compos 
Sition absolutely logical and pure.; I cannot, show you 2 nors © 
beautiful example than the angle of the pediment, of the Pars | 
thenon (Fig.; 389),: borrowed from the restoration of i Bovint,: 
who. sought, to restore the coloring = a question left, aside,” 

Later for facility of execution and clarity of effeet,: men” 
were led to modify the last, moulding of the cornice,: always 
terminated by a flat, fillet.) The form of the cyma is also 
modified (Fis.:; 590),: and the cornice is returned by passing — 
from the horizontal to the raking by a vertical plane determ 
mined by the last, fillet, A.j Also the upper line of: the: hori= 
zontal cornice stops: at, the point, B,. the intersection of the. 
horizontal and raking fillets,; | 

Such is the arrangement, of all pedinents,: numerous examples 


or 


“eas 2 
fr ak neo to. Be gnos fsiy s9m 


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a ston BE. yore nedw. dala --jefdsceihusth a¥ss 
a geidcoteat fag jet | fadnoettod s-vilecap ei exeta 
iiew edg to some fegaceisod eis no steed eid 
Cyne aaa eid wn melquexrg Igtavor oir fiw. 3 
G obi) todwwad.2-.emeG otto jeilegsio .2 
ate hiosoe Sdt.ah pyscedd Jasrt els ak iia 
2 treks | a3 IO dad? Hoa pabisinhs avcisay 40 
oan ghaso¥ edd nt yvineivetdses Doe soni gedes 
age. piaataias colds oi) -/ynanted Sue fae L 
Ret qitasre tae - teas auto % vad aed it 
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even ¢f I90% 6. dead » eB YSs is sedieas. - 
nae te hats yrolimatshe %> sivas? dna 


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ae ee gels gfe 
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| ig Ad ie heiousiaios ed dsioiessas Yeu wYeos ais 
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pon ad tee e168) Dos -belsev yey eng enn td go 
eal ai dada syaiege: Nae Latgdtoiforis .Jdosoxe 
© sa nouiaal 8 etes ¥itenddre of ene {iib vl 
eet. HORS (penesete dard i siagil ages | 
seestnose 40 Sonic iwoy ena voy mode hs aie 
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244 
of which ere to be seen in the most, varied architeetural mom” 
tives and even in furniture. It is: always the antique pedi= 
ment with some changes of mouldings... Is it not. instructive ¢t 
show thus the fixedness for: so many centuries,: principles and 


ey 8 - 


by logic and truth? It is: rare indeed that raking mouldings — 
have been arranged successfully,: that. only stop at the ends 6 
the sable... There seems to result an effect of sliding,: al= . 
ways disagreeable. . Also when there is not. a projecting angle 
there is usually a horizontal return indicating that the ga— 
ble rests on the horizonyal courses of the wall (Pig.: 5391).; 
I. will cite several examples =» they are very numerous =<— at” 
Se) Chapelle,: Notre Dame,: S.) Laurent, (Fis.: 392),: S.; Bustache,: 
all in the first theory; in the second: are the secondary Bab 
of various churches, and that of S.; Btienne-du=Mont (Fig., 399 

sometimes and particularly in the North,: in Flanders,: Eng= 
land and Germany,: the sables terminate in steps; sometimes — 
they take forns that, apparently req@pll the roofs; such are th 
‘gables of the celebrated. Church of Brou,} ee Tote 

i have not exhausted all that might, be said on roofs.) Only 
rewenber always,: that, a roof is never too simple; the igno~ © 
rant, formula of admiration, that consists in saying that a 
is a forest. of timbers,: is in reality a criticism; today BY 
with iron the span may be made much sgreater,: and frequently © 
the roofs may henceforth be constructed with purlins and 
ridges,: bub. without, trusses by employing division walls.: Appl 
cations are very varied,. and there can be no general rules,: © 
except, simplicity; I say again,: that it is: already sufficient 
ly difficult to properly make a simple construction,: and not” 
complicate it at pleasure.: | | | 

And when you make your plane of stories,i think early of 
your. roofs,: for there is the punishment. for all,: who yield to 
the fashion of disjunction and irregularity.: wi | 

As for the gable,: when the roofs have pronounced ihelina- : 
tions, their decoration ordinarily consists of raking mouldim 
plain enough,: but abutting at, the two ends against a projece 
ting moyive forming a stop, as shown by %is.: 391,: 


. 


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245, 
CHAPTER VI.; FLOORS. AND CHILINGS,,; 
SUMMARY... «= Composition of floors.: «= Yooden floors.) <= 
Projecting beams, = Artificial projections. «— Spans.) «= In: 
ternal cornices. -~ Various arransgementsof floors.; -= Visibl 
construction,; «» Ornamental ceilinss,.; «» Transition from wal 
to ceilings.: =~ Visible framework.,: 


Floors. 

So far,: walls,: piers and roofs have been mentioned; we have 
seen that. shelter forms the orimary object of architecture,; 
Theres are simple shelters and mashificent shelters; perhaps 
for a lons time the architect. had no other programme,: and our 
civilization, that owes so much to architecturs,: had not four 
in construction more extensive resources had yet, civilizatio: 
With shelter existed the dwelling,: the nomadic state was no 
longer the rvlé,: and all needs of men in society could be 
satisfied,: - . 

But. for that society,: architecture desired more,: it, desirs 
to bring together men by inereasins the sground,: and it, creat» 
ed stories, This must have been boldness at the besinnins,: 
and who knows that. if at; first. this novelty was not received 
with the fears aroused by every advance? It appears entirely 
simple today to live at, 35 or even 66 ft. above the ground; 
these codditions of habitation permitting’ Sreat cities are a: 
victory of the art; by what. means? By floors,: vaults: and 
stories. ae 

Although floor (plancher:) comes from planks(planches),: this 
word: does not desisnate the floorins.: The floor is the entire 
structure of a horizontal division,: supporting tiles or floot 
ins,: and which may be of iron or of wood,: or again of mixed © 
construction, Let, us merely say,: that. iron is more andmore: 
substituted for wood in the construction of floors. 

But. as the result of lons historical use, from wood. procee 
the art. of floors,: and if very interestins experiments have 
been made where iron remains visible and by itself gives thei 
appearance of the floor,: it. is to be recognized that, the mons 
umental expression of the floors and ceilings,: with their 
rich and beautiful appearance,: belongs to wooden architectur 

But, ay part is to discuss neither construction proper nor © 
decoration. Before ceilings like that of Henry II at the 


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246 
Louvre,: the sole theory is to admire it. I rather have to 
show the influence and. effect of floors on the rent hnerann 
couposition,: 

It: is: necessary to recall very briefly the principles. conm 
trolling the construction of a floors: 

Beneath the flooring or tiles m= the floor restins on the 
small strips of wood termed furrinsg,: and the tiles on a layel 
of gravel or of pulverized plaster -~ must, be a construction 
realizing a horizontal partition or artificial sround,: for. 
which is intended the construction of the Fleore, 

Wooden Floors,: «= Excepting the floors of Swiss ohal esas 
composed of joined timbers,: between the structural beams for 
a floor are left; spaces (Fig.; 394).; The floor is constructed 
of beams with sections according bo. their lengths and spaced 
about. 14 ins.) on centres.: On these are placed thin jointed 
split; oak boards,: on which is cast. a layer. of plaster or: mor: 
tar,: which becomes the artificial ground,: to receive floorin, 
tiles,: mosaic, eta.: 

fhe joints. may remain visible,: the surface of the panei be 
ing plastered,. or dressed boards are used instead of- splits; 
or a ceiling is placed below the joists,: formed of laths nail 
ed on the joints and plastered.: 

The complete floor is then subdivided as: in Big.; 395.: (The 
Strips are here shown parallel to the beams,: but. are frequent 
ly perpendicular. to them.: A floor should be sufficiently 
strong for the strips to be laid in either direction). The 
thickness of such a floor cannot be much less: than 16 ins: 

But this arrangement, with simple joists is: rarely admissi-/ 
ble.; Commonly floors consist. of main beams and joists,: the — 
beams resting on the solid parts of the construction,: the: 
floor being composed of beams H,& (Fig.: 396),. of headers 6, op 

and of ordinary loists.; These timbers are in a DSRS ab Sota 
tom and so present, a plane ceilins,: 

But in floors of great, span projecting girders must etfent 
be allowed, for their depths would exceed that. proper for. she 
depth of a floor,.; The architect may further produce a happy 
decorative effect. by arrangins these beams regularly and fort 
ing panels,; ) 

These projecting Seams may be entirely below the joists ( Fi 
397),: the joists may be visible or be plastered. Or. the 


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cists may bo tenonéd into | n@@%shns {Fiap 393) cee 
joists may be tenoned into the beams (Fis.; 598),: only 
apart of the beam then showins below the joists,: which 
are visible or plastered.; 

Hither method will be. adopted according to the space at. com 
mand. and. the heisht. of the story,: the first, being more monu: 
mental in appearance,: bu’ riskins the effect of being crushed 
in a low story,: so that floors of sreat beayty with single — 
beams and joists: have been built,: that. satisfy the primary — 
condition of art, complete harmony of decoration with con : 
struction,: notably the beautiful floor with visible beams an 
joists of the Sallery of Cerfs at. Fontainebleau, or the less 
known one of the City Hall of Beaugency (Fis.; 399),; 

Yet. you will also see magnificent eeilinss whose relief i! 
mere decoration and do not: indicate the construction itself; 
such are compartments or panels of very varied combinations, 
often very rich,.: But: in that case the floor must. first be 
Constructed more stronsly,: since it. must, support. that suspen 
ded decoration,: The total denpth will then be increased by | 
the heisht necessary for the attached panels.: Then this com= 
bination is to be reserved for rich interiors of ample heigh 

But. this is also done in modest. proportions in our houses 
by means of mouldings run in plaster.’ Therefore when you see 
panels on one of these ceilings as in Fis.; 400,: the ground B 
is the construction,: the mouldings BH are attached,: and it, 
would be an error to sink the. grounds B,B,: into the construe 
ion,: in spite of their paneled appearance,: EY 

Floors of Iron.; «» Today the use of iron has poe cal 
pletely replaced the use of wood for floors,: notably in impo 
tant, structures and houses, 1t. has sreat advantages,: being — 
incombustible and does not, rot,: and affords all the stiffnes 
desired; its strensth can be comouted with more certainty, © 
and ib, permits: spans not. to be attained with wood,; Lal 

Here again the joists receive the tiles: or flooring. The 
joists are I beams spaced 2 to 2.5. ft. on centres; the fill- 
ing is: made in several ways,: hollow tiles. and plaster (Fis, @ 
401),:or plaster fragments and plaster (Fis.; 402); to give 
solidity to the fillins in the last case,: the joists are con 
nected by square rods & bent, at. each end,: on which are laid 
small rough bars F,: forming a sort; of Sridiron.: The ceilings © 
beneath is plastered. 


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248 a 

Iron beams extend between the walls with anchors: at. each 
end or are framed similarly to wooden floors.: Finally the 
beams may be visible beneath,: either framed of two I beams 
(Fig.; 403) held together by flat, bands and bridsing,: or buil 
girders with verious: shapes riveted together (Fig. 404). ™ 
girder then really forms an iron beam of I. section,. stronge 
than the rolled beam and composed of a web,: four wesley: 
if necessary,: two plates; 

The beam may also be a bowepiinder: (Fis: 405)40 eimai 
wider and has two. webs,; | 

Finally,: as for wood,: the beams may be placed upon or fra 
to the sgirder.; The first, case is: entirely simple.; Framing” 
is done by angles riveted to the beam and bolted to the 
girder,: and it, is well to rest, the end of the beam on en ans 
Sle S (Fig.: 406),.; In this fisure the sirder rises above the 
beams by the height. of the upper: angles,: the framing then 
being better,: but. the beams may be raised up to the leg of t 
the angle (Fig.; 407).:; 4 

All elements of floors must, be carefully calculated,: which 
you. will later: learn to do.: Now you know that an iron Floor 
is actually an iron wall placed horizontally,: supported by 
metal girders if necessary..: 1 ee 

This metal construction sometines remains: visible,: but; its 
possible effects are varied little,: the beans: then being pls 
tered and receiving mouldings and applied ornaments,: ) | 

As for the resources of applied ornamentation,: what. was 
said of the wooden floor equally applies to those of iron,:t 
if the decoration consists of panels not. resulting from the 
construction,: the thickness of the floor must, comprise. both 
beams and sirders,: 

Iron floors are Senerally a little thinner than those of © 
wood,: but you will err little by indicating in a general des 
sign a depth of 12 to 16 ins.: for the general floor of wood 
or iron,: the depths required for. the Sirders and applied decm 
Oration beins taken extra.: 

In Semeral,: floors assume relatively limited spans,: shige 
an edifice such as the antigue basilicas or certain churches 
covercd by a ceiling suspended from the framework of the roc 
may have very great; spans; the Basilica of S.: Paulewet=# has 
nearly 78.7 ft.; clear span.’ For a wooden floor,: a span of 


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249 

23.0 to 26.5 ft., is already very great. being then a consid= 
erable length for wooden girders.,. In iron the spans may be. 
much greater,: almost, indefinite,.: but, then the girders have 

enormous depths,: rarely to be arranged in public structures,: 
and spans of iron floors of 32.8 or 59.4 ft.; are. almost ex= 
treme in the construction of our monuments, that. cannot: be r 
ized in our houses,: because of the excessive depth required — 
for the floors,: i 

Thus the. architect should know how to find for supporting — 
his floors,: points of support, judiciously arranged,: which may 
not, interfere with use or injure the effect,.; Evidently a <—_ 
ter of foresight, and ingenuity. 

From the point of view of construction as well as ofethe. 
resulting architectural appearance,: floors may be: placed in j 
two classes,: those with or without. main sirders.: 

Between walls near together, the floor of iron or wood con= 
sists of joists,: and when these joists are filled between or 
lathed and plastered,: you have an actual horizontal frame of 
iron or wood between two surfaces,: the upper being the floors 
ing and the lower the plastered ceiling.;, Such are the floors) 
of our apartments.: 

Below this plaster ceiling are applied projecting ment 
extending around the room in the angle between the wall and. 
ceiling as a coenices all this is more or: less decorated. and 
is: an added projection.: ‘ 

Then it is a very vicious indication to be seen frequenti gin 
in your sections, when you draw concave internal cornices, : i 
whose section cuts into the depth of the floor (Fig.; 408).- 
This depth is determined by the construction and must. be re= 
spected,: and you should no more hollow out a floor to cover ‘ 
it, by a cornice, than to hollow out. a wall to mould it.; The 
correct, indication is that; given in Fig. 400,: ‘, 

It, is now to be stated,: that, the internal cornice plays a 
part, entirely different, from the. cornice of a facade,: and no 
longer calls for the same elements.) It. is very frequently t 
merely a great. cavetto,: but. which should always project, and 
not, be hollowed to injure: the floor.) At, Versailles in partio= 
ular,: may be seen very beautiful internal cornices.:; Some 
beautiful examples are given in Figs., 409 to 413,: 

In old wooden floors without, projecting girders, the con— 


3 


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250 
struction quite frequently remains visible,: when the joists 
form a decoration by their projection and sometines receive. 
decorative painting,: as: well as the spaces between theme} 
Naturally these floors without; girders can cover. only quite — 
limited spaces. or small rooms,: and therefore are not motives 
for monumental compositions; eleganee and grace are rather — 
appropriate here,.; a 

As for floors with girders, they are used in two very dif=— 
ferent, systems,: but. it is first. necessary to take thbesnenea 
the general construction of the floors,; 

Assume two parallel walls a considerable distance apart,: 
say 26.3 ft.) The method with joists is here almost. impossi= i 
ble,: at, least, in wood,: for each joist must, be an actual beam,i 
not, to bend under its weight.) Then is required a a 
permitting the joists to have a span corresponding to their 
dimenshons,: of about, 15.2 ft.3. consequently to support; the. 4 
whole are required much stronger beams or girders; strength 
is concentrated, and the joists will be merely a filling.; 4 

But, these girders ean have the desired strength only on con 
dition of having the depth,. varying with the needs of the con 
struction; about 14 to 16 ins.; for the joists,: which could 
not. have a greater depth without, becoming uselessly heavy; 
perhaps 24 to 35 ins.; for the sirders.} Since the whole must. 
present, a plane surface above,: énly by projections below can 
be necessarily shown the different, depths of the construe 
tion,: F 

Every great. floor is then a horizontal division with girde§ 
ers projecting beneath it,.; It. is somewhat, analogous,. except= _ 
ing. in direction,: to a great wall with plane intérnak surface 
and externally strengthened by buttresses,; 

Understanding this. arrangement. properly,: the node natural 
design of these great floors consists in leaving the construc- 
tion visible.; The girders then project,: the joists between 
girders are themselves visible or receive a plastered ceiling. 

If the entire wooden framework be left, visible,: only arrang- 
ed to sttbisfy the needs of the construction,: we have the russ 
tie floors of our country; if the work be well executed with — 
regular spacing,: timbers properly squared,: we obtain a floor 
with an architectural appearance,: and with some mouldings or 
& little decoration,: it, will easily become one of those beau-= 


vie 


La. 


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251 
tiful ceilings with visible woodwork,: such as you. see: at, 
the School,: Museum Cluny,: Fontainebleau,: and around the cnuril 
of the Invalides.; ; 

These beautiful ceilings have a great, charm for the archi- 
tect,: even their truth.; They are not, only the expression of- 
the construction,: but the construction itself.: Such is this ; 
charm, that, one does not; defend himself for imitating them { 
by artificial means,: and that even under iron beams are some= 
times seen imitations of wooden joists,: made by the plaster» 
ere) It. may be said,: that. like hypocrisy,: this is the homage. 
rendered by vice to virtue.; 

But they cannot, be varied,: being necessarily composed of: el« 
ements always the same,: the girders with Spacing fixed by the 
width of bays,: the joists with dimensions and spaces scarcely 
varying.; Even the decoration can differ only in detail and 
coloring.) And since ceilings are an occasion of beautiful 
artistic combinations and great, ornamental richness,: it, has: 
been sought. to introduce variety by elements no longer. the. 
construction of the floor,: but. by merely decorative combina= a 
tions.; ” 
Yet, between the. floor of pure. construction just. mentioned ‘ 

j 


“sen es eSilg 


Sth. Lee mee Che 


and the purely decorated ceiling are. several intermediate 
terms; elements of construction arranged for decoration and 
framed at. distances determined to form large panels, : still. an 
expression of the construction,: but. of a construction design= 
ed for decoration (Fig.; 414),: and also floors with visible b 
beams,: where the entire space: between the beams,;: forms a dec= 
orative panel in carved wood,: one: of the most. beautiful exan- 
ples being the floor extending over the Library of the. _— 
; 
i 


of Fine Arts (Fig.; 415).: 

Finally,: a great number of: admirable ceilings are purely : 
decorative.e; I mean by these,: that, beneath the construction 
of the floor,: or rather the projecting beams,: special frames — 
are suspended from this: floor by bolts or other irons,: serv=_ 
ing to support, attached cabinet. work and sculptures.; These 
ceilings are really great, applied panels.; Such is the ceil- 
ing already cited of the chamber of- Henry £0 at. the Louvre, : 
(Fig.) 421),: the ceilings of Fontainebleau (Figs: 416), those 
of numerous churches,: notably of Ara=Coeli. (Fig.; 417),. Se: io 
ria Maggiore’ (Fig. 418). and S.; John )ateran; the ceilings of 


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252 . 
Palace: Doge of Venice,: Palace Farnese. (F4g.; 419),. Palace: of - 
Justice of Rouen (Fig.: 420),: 

But, you see that to permit, these noble compositions requir= 
es a considerable depth,: since then is necessary the entire 
depth of the construction at the most. projecting part,: adding 
the entire thickness of the ornamental ceiling.; 

Note well,: that, a ceiling requires vigorous projections and 
powerful effects.; When of grand: dimensions,: the effect. al~ 
ways to be feared is flatness.; A ceiling producing the effect. 
of a great. flat. covering has an easily disagreeable: appear~ 
ance, whatever its decoration.; Without, the reality of beams 
clearly indicating the stability of the construction,: it. is 
at, least, necessary for. the visor of the projections and of 
hollows to present, the appearance: of that; stability,: and that. 
you may dispose of sufficient. depth m- yet; without, crushing 
the hall by the power of the ceiling.: A matter of taste and 
proportion.; 

An always delicate study is the transition from wall to 
ceiling.; Whether the wall be plane or have projections of col- 
umns,: pilasters,: et¢c.,: or isolated points of support,: we al- 
Ways come to a last, straight, course and a sort, of cornice,: in 
brief,: an internal entablature.; But, the interior is internal 
architecture, and in the beautiful works,: you will easily ree- 
ognize,: that the arehbitect has indeed desired: to make: some~ 
thing different; from a facade.; 

Thus resuming that. beautiful example of the ehamber of Hen« 
ry Il (Fig.: 421),: you see. there a frieze with rich consoles,. 
that, crowns the vertical walls,: and which supports =- no longe 
ér.a corona,: but, the first. enclosure of the ceiling; in real~. 
ity the ceiling itself is the last; part. of the entablature,: 
substituted for: what, would be the cornice, if this architect- 
ure were external,: 

I have reserved: for this comparison the study of visible 
framework,: although such nay be roofs,: by reason of the dec~ 
orative element, permitting them to be compared to ceilings. 

Phe only theory of these works is the arrangement of the 
franework,: which should: be simple and avoid a profusion of 
members,: that. here may easily become confusion.: There. are 
many beautiful examples,j notably at Monreale (Fis,: 422),. S.- 
Miniato of Florence (Fig.: 423). and the Cathedral of Messina.: 


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(Fis.; 424).; In mediaeval architecture,: great. vaults of wood 
were sometimes built; I. can only cite some examples,: like the 
Palace of Justice of Rouen, the celebrated great, Hall of: West, 
minster,: or that; of Hampton Court; in England: (Figs.: 425, 4265 
and finally the chapel of our: School.,; | 

As for iron floors,: they are either covered and. then treat= 
ed with applied deeoration,: like. those: of the ‘City Hall,:« and: 
many of the Palace: of Justice; their: design does: not, sensibly 
differ from that, of wooden ceilings or the girders and joists 
remain visible, and then a structural design will direct, 
you; special theories: on this subject, cannot, be sgiven,: since 
sturctural considerations here precede all others.; Very meri- 
torious attempts: have been made in seeking a monumental exe 
pression for these floors;: but, if frequently very interesting 
for the tradesman,: nothing has yet. been produced,: that, can 
cause us to forget. the beautiful wooden ceilings with their 
splendid artistic decorations «== particularly when a Paul 
Veronese: depicts there the glory of: Venive (Fig.; 427).: 


P Paes ret 
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s — eS tneaemt9g 


254 
CHAPTER VII.: VAULTS IN GENERAL,; 


, SUMMARY,: a= * Equilibrium of Vaults.) -— Their farces,: «= 
Strength of Piers.; -— Blians of vaulted edifites.; =- Italian 
plans of vaulted edifices with iron tie-rods.; -- Dangers of 
vaults.: = Methods of construction;. stereometric vaults in 
cut, stone;. vaults of small materials;. mediaeval vaults on ine 
dependent. arches,; -~ Thrusts and resistances.} «= Construction 
in repose and in movement.) == Consideration of height,: of el= 
evation of stories,: ete. 


If I. proposed to state everything comprised in this subject. 
of vaults, volumes would not, suffice.; In the case of vaults,: 
the genius of architects in a contest, with the most. formid- 
able difficulties has secured the: most. splendid: results. Eu= 
eéryone knows certain of these works,: that, habit; alone prevent: 
us: from regarding as: prodigies; vaults of palaces,: bridges 
or cathedrals, domes resting on other vaults,: etc.; Nothing 
is more noble or beautiful,: and nothing eeqyires more knowl~ 
edge.; 

I have explained the arch and the elementary vault,: which 
is merely a deeper arch.; You have learned the thrust: of an 
arch and how it; is neutralized,: this resistance: being easily 
ensured in a wall pierced by openings,: but. becomes far more. 
doubtful when a vault. no longer acts: lengthwise the wall but: 
transversely, tending to overthrow it. (Fig.; 428),; If the vauli 
are also elevated and act; at. the top of the: walls like a pow=. 
erful lever arn, (stability can only be: obtained by ingenious 
arrangements and the. combination of abutments.; 

When result, are concerned,: the ignorant, eonstrucieed is s2ecl 
ed between two dangers;. too bold or rather rash,: he exposes 
it. to. destruction «— thers are numerous examples of vaults 
falling or overturning their points of: support, even during: 
erection; too timtd,: he will seek safety in excessive thick- 
ness of piers and walls and useless buttresses,: and will bur= 
den his edifice with costly and encumbering additions,: even 
if the excess of precautions does not; in its turn destroy the 
stability,: as sometimes too strongly in a weak wall, it, is: 
pushed over inward to prevent, it, from falling outwards: 

In brief,. every vault. is in conditional equilibrium; its 
permanent, action would destroy the edifice if resistance 


pian 


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oe il qieid mort adineos ativay ond 
| st i nvondoids bstisite ylbsd to seslees Ji 
; be edd wolfod saddssx edoiad .eaoda sdgii 
* yyilessb musiain aéiw e#ots oothaq to eaen 
seed. pai azondotdd bsriupet edd givsv ef? evael dJsit ese 
; egal to spol coh kb yalseques: adieg [aie 
| sept ets ton 


Bh et baa 40 reaptiade otis pekiia Lavan: etd 49 eéines’ aad 
hicded peti Pastis ysev'etivper bivow dadd |divev ease edd avd 
we ase! a 4% dacict? ive Bult bloow (G88 915) A Lied elgaie a 
hee ete eilew eaedd QE (8 eflsw vexntdd yd 
age aa to levoses sad (gilasorgtost bea rwatiods 
os gdivetfies — ast> aap ot Ifsw edd sango 
pee Biren” RANT is 
| ae cy ‘Yo david Re xe gees yosetis BA 
‘eho Te Fliev hotutogs .seddalt eomooed dt 22 te 
‘ gp fesaten) Ysasedso 2 gdinitG? so > Ladiawey 
24 ited edd aeel asqe dit ( hedtey 
Siew Lstucmten .yisisseo edd mo ysis 
£1 fab at bavot thal aodines odd 


255. 
equally permanent; did: neutralize the former.; These resistance 
es may be of two kinds; external,: by extra thickness of walls 
or piers,: buttresses and flying buttresses,: internal,: by ten» 
sion,: the: spreading apart: of the walls.; Without entering’ in= 
to the theory of the stability of vaults,: later observed in 
the study of construchion,: I can state that the primary eon=— 
dition of that. stability is,: that, the static resultant; of the 
action of the vault, the curve R,R,: found by a careful drawin) 
must, always remain withon the section of the vault, and of its 
abutments{Fis.;, 429).; This curve has its part; nearest the in= 
trados at the crown,: becomes sensibly more distant to the an= 
Sle of 30° to a horizontal,: continying obliguely within the 
abutment.; The stability of the vault; is regarded as: doubtful 
if the foot, of this oblique line: falls outside: the middle: 
third of the thickness of the wall.; _ 3 | 

fhe. curve is a resultant, of several forces,: of thrusts: and 
of resisting loads,: the thrust. being only a form of loads; | 
Thus the lighter: the vault,: the smaller its: thrust,: and the: 
heavier the piers,: they are more resistant,; The lightness of 
the vaults results from their section,: that should not, exhib- 
it, useless: or badly arranged thickness,: from materials like 
light; stone,: bricks rather hollow thab solid,: or like the Ro= 
mans, of pumice. stone: with minimum density;; finally,: by reces, 
ses that, leave the vault, the required thickness in the essen 
tial parts,: composing important, surfaces of simple and thine _ 
ner. compartments.e: | 

As for the weight of the pisrs,. it results from their mass, 
the. density of the materials, and also the: load at, the tope: 
Thus the same vault,: that, would require very thick walls for 
a single hall A (Fig.; 430),: would find sufficient, resistance 
by thinner walls B,: if these walls are loaded by one: or more 
stories; and reciprocally,: the removal of an upper: story a 
cause the wall to fall,: far from relieving a vaulted ground — 
SLOTY.: ; 

As already seen for arches,: the thrust; of a vault, is greate 
er as it, becomes flatter,: apointed vault or one elliptically 
vertieal,: or forming a catenary (natural eurve of a chain ih» 
verted ). with span less than height,: thrusts comparatively 1il 
tle; on the contrary,: segmental vaults thrust, strongly,: and: 
the maximum thrust, is found in the radially jointed ceiling,« 


Ot gas as basdislg hednioy aad oF OE Bhi aapee e 
igogmas ‘Bas miol ~— xwoDe zouse tnaveTtie yaaa of 
jo ddiiged : (ieue o¢ gdited to neidssegadq ,dlusy efd 
owds | § sidteuogel, at as jedd «= ote ,ebeof bexogiegue 

— , . avq lsoiuique seve 19 aelai isne 

aa sistas at eLinw 40. henaisiess eis noouded ancistoqgoug Yo ealy 

a re i: red Eselanene eneds ;elisd bediusy awond Liew lo easgs 

@ bsol edi iuoddiw semob 19 \,adivay iesaad uucusidsoo saad 

| es eneg e638 aldat 40%) -soaizade taqas 
af of ot hoses eA} Ford. -otoli 


: tere weihow So ate od} niioumed ‘se Sud <ahen 
=f si dna eendtisetord Jotmemoato yd bedwodsecean yt 
eas ae ohae 20 sedated tous ato veodl :sonotosecy ods 
i eee ; 3 py P2 ee Leowmieeet he sobow boo 
sane, 10° t tags tIi6 ifs ee elfen %9 weaveniaiiy ceed 
Ba Veen sot vee. neds sovewod »,etee? bas ates? o& bates» 
, ti3 edd a beclugooet ed Rineds asig oodluar 
‘ads. qrods Rawots edd Qo selg ed? andine 
Edes{, to sogis?.,saliiaereY Yo avoad 49 

+: tS att) Ewiato? eoelad es | ,eecitibs aan 
bas 26 jos ago %o eucdd vilsatt Baa : ,eoneioi 
edt Hert aaivinot yansig bodivet o1@ avoit :.ode 
se ~odeatedgqa has angi dicqory 
Sis " fina ‘ene fq eidood odd at bar? Litw aoy fot: 
ieadivay dididxe scotices edd vodw .weenedgil vied: 
Aopageaandaat matted! at Leung bee bhai 


é! eae od Reo ace Cukinast Siitres ‘ait Nae bide 
: \eaedd Yo goitvetgns odd ques tgoosnt evsoisaxey¥ 
a2 has: ,dusue ls gissseosr dads. Jididxe {i igseset 
; ie ie aie “yeastottinsai yd e¥bigevsd aeuoaed: noid 
di yldadou endkiteoguod boietdaloo videxi trek 
aro lel ets bad ae As eeu Lisi? od exo 
is ah, 7 a ee 7 ‘«¥soneos (bes 
“T6 .¢2: ies tottvonons ae cond. aiplorde go¥ 
~sanedtens ve . Fase aiépe fin woy baa ,edluav 
deum Kee nosh er end “Yo 
2 Paap Lid | 


256 
a vault, analogous to the jointed platband as an arch.) 

So many different, cases occur. ~-= form and composition of- 
the. vault,: proportion of height, to span, hedght, of abutments, 
Superposed loads,: ete.. «=~ that, it, is impossible to sive gen- 
eral rules or even empirical proportions.; Here are some exam- 
ples of proportions between the thickness of walls and the 
spans of well known vaulted bhalls;. these examples: are taken 
from continuous tunnel vaults, or: domes without, the load of : 
upper stories.; (For. Table see page 2578.; 

Note./ that the reoutte. Lo he deduced brow this diebbanaeedll 
obsotute,: not merely by veason of ditlerences in heights, Loa 
ete. but aloo because the external watts are moot trequent- 
ty accompanied by ornamental. brojections,: that contribute to 
the. vestostanee./ Shese data aust ‘eteheniet qi 
and, wander att. VOCOVEO | 

These thicknesses of walls are all different, from those: ede 
apted to floors and roofs,: however they may bee; Hence: a 
vaulted plan should be recognized at; the first; glance.j Exe 
amine the plan of the ground story of the Louvre (Fig.; 431),« 
or those of Versailles,: Palace of justice of Paris,: most; Ro= 
man edifices,: as Palace Corsini: (Fig.; 432), those of Genoa, — 
Florence,: anf’ finally those of our: churches and cathedrals,: 
etc.) Those are vaulted plans,. deriving from the: vaults their. 
proportions and appearance,: ‘| 

Yet, you will find in the books: plans astonishing you by ) 
their lightness,: when the sections exhibit, vaults.) Very fren 
quently and particularly in Italian erchitecture,: the. thrusts 
of vaults are neutralized by iron ties, the piers only sup-~ 4 
porting the vertical loads,: and can be made light; but. by a : 
vexatious inaccuracy,: the engravings of these edifices do not 
generally exhibit. that, necessary element,. and the: representa- 
tion becomes deceptive by insufficiency.: Fy 

Many, justly celebrated compositions,: notably in Tuscany, : 
owe to their use of iron ties the condition of their elegance 
and economye: ‘ 

Yet. absolute theorists have proscribed the use of ties: for. 
vaults,: and you. will again hear these anathemas.; The science 
of the architect,: they say,: must, combine: the elements: of stae 
bility sufficient, in themselves without, resorting to expedi= 
ents, that; are even the negation of the principle of the vaul 


RO St ei ei fl a i Nt ae 


idcaneie eaiat init Fo. iekidae 
eat es wolled  tivey fest 
pees eet. a = eee 
e “Yo ffed saluodto dgeaD. 
Neb} Se Pisorts9 te sited 
S% gh. qs Ob 
éctitioe is Rebliges 
béisev fesagd } 
“faa agaeV Yo slgus? 
latosy loaned bemot 
: attaadenes to-aidqod ~.3 
oP) “thadeteG) Yo yaisde broose  eidoa 
i (tinev fonmatleedicen 

. '4edafele gt avedaed 
= ayhiee eh ‘aa to ¢issv 
‘ee itvad 

“WeaivoR’ Yo tsibetiss9 
*«f estob {[sadneieo } 


. 
fe 
ae ‘fo sai09 542 


Tob 


e.% 
Loa 
} ‘ 
Aer tteg-~0t penntane ily tsa Basan st ll ar Sige 


dows daugtd? asthinen 
iseeo ajiewdd + ;<00 
be adie 6 ) owed > 5.60 


ae digay Ssaawes 
Beet leval to eat 


ax ieee eaisels, 
“eatevensxd cine 


ss. cn 


ei 


: se eee aa 
ee ; alenes 


257 


Monuments.: Materials. Diameter (Thickness Bearing 
till 3 9 of of wall atof dian- 
Vaults.,| Vault.)|Springing. jeter on 


yall., 4 


3 


About; |About.; 


Pantheon of Rome( spher~| Bricks 4462. | 22.9". 21.5! 
ical vault,: hollow and | 
walls).; conerete.: 

Great. cireular hall of 

Baths of Caracalla,.: do. 115.5 7) *2iee 1525 % 
dow, 402; . 
Basilica of Constantine | 
(tunnel vault).; do.: 79.3 | 13.6 18.8 
Temple of Venus and | voll 
Rome(tunnel vault).: do. 66.5.| 9.8 22.0: 7 
Se’ Sophia of Constanti«= | : 
nople,: second story of |Bricks.: 28.2)! F22@. 13.4 


narthex(tunnel vault,).: 
Lantern in eloister ? 
vault. of S.; Michel of doe} 31.5.| 3.6 128.64 
Pavia.; : 
Cathedral of Florence | 
( octagonal dome ),; A do. 138.; | 17.0 26.5. 
5.] Peter of Rome,: dome 

meridian through arch do.) 1372." |°i2ae 536.0° 
Do.,: through panel.; do.’ 137.3 9.2 . 475. 
Do.,: nave (° abutted dos} 91.6.] 11.8 25.3 
tunnel vault. ).; ; 

Dome. of Invalides ft we 85.4 | 13.2 21.3 


Waiting hall,: Palace of | J. 
Justice,: (tunnel vault) 


through transverse arch 


tones; 41.0:| 6.3(varies)21.§ 


ee a 


es,: j 
Doe: €00,: through é 
panels, | rick.; - 44.7] 3.6 44.6 — 
Gallery Marchande.. tone.; 24.3} 5.9 13.69 
Palace Luxenburd,. : 
grand stairway, tone.) 26.2 | 5.9 14.6 


(1.; Nete./ Shia dome tw hoobed by iron bande). / 


ceo ie 


cating deed aw MANEDE E tovetd ‘sev annhadued xi ett. 
«agro thedt yd bettegque essmoA-odd to etiuev 
te fzasd tok siggod esolisviss edd etints oels I 
oved aids te A Gidd emoa exedw (808 eft) - 
\ oe 4s) jeeaeliitecoty eisoifieh bas jaepelto — 
a som 2 oe, diwsy ens dedit Ifen sion (,sase yaa al 
i os aletsao gi tocdisotse od? .esislasitib sort 
actuelle shod Yilsicegae > roaed dgiw gntfites to 
Sm aoteusiene efelg.-~ toolt edd) ,tdgnca ai acitourie 
Kitd cave -:tivsy. edd Tot betudidedgs ylidtasato 
fiiused eten yous qitenie3 neta ,evoolt olgaie eves 
as asd timer edt 169 2201 s ut hb. fe ;.emote ai 
R dant. .zwebasts baa yFiiidaysh to astdossedo 4» Us 
fibedds> 10 to dnidd of aseb-aedd Ifin o¥ (.sosiges 
“tuedd Te Seaitbcre tas adludideey sosiga ,iguuiad Yo as 
; ° ; add mort age ivdiftidos tiedd ata tend etinav 
$029 iedded etociode tiusy edd ,ydifity eiquia Yo 
“baba gee ads 42 betoussaqoo [lee Ti bas  ,sedisex 
os ; £5V0 So ehom sedéo yas neadd ivedded antd . 
asitiahsa geow ef’ od tfosti zoaef a1 
bapteit jen eldsisqaoodi 102 ysiaudiogge 2t02 
tl ete analog edd sort ayant ~fatani I aedt 


soeciis ‘an i) sae od aekend 
aol Seiki efi ediexe ylinenpett gsom dors oti? 
od. absad di TF ydk yd beddadad ylitentbro si bas 
fi¥0 adi tetasbne toa asob Ji» viiaw edd ai cote 
43 denista: edauadd sadto Yinsy odd ,yisadnoo off 
pit 2 ae) -,ebiewdue sovq di tleso od Ratbasd -,yloaetsv 
at at eds nsid avotsgash e10om ei diasvy edd. .o10% 
ne va f er £oL Newis Yinees si dois edd ,baed iaddo ani 90 
b di yussisoo eft wo jud,é1 evods acitontienco 
88. @lisii ae most baol o¢ 40 .,e¢luer deol ton 
rode offs. aeended s1ooit Yo eosig edd aied. yond — 
vgn ylénebive yeds .agoasied diteoned 
“ij “ieds Yo notios galtuasdieve edd 
-eot es Sand t.moninis « of: heoubss 
ite Io tasq tegqu edé¢ gateolo yleres 
feta ooh Hie: od vyisas0eoua af di. wedoteio 
| Bak : ‘sonad | evince qetane 


258 
This is doubtless very brave; I admire as much as any one the 
vaults of the Romans supported by their immovable piers,: but. 
I also admire the marvellous Logsia dei Lanzi at; Florence,: | 
(Fis.: 308),: where some thin hars of iron have permitted such 
elegant and delicate pboportions.} 

In any case,: note well that, the vault. is a work never free. 
from difficulties.; The architect. is certain to treat; a floor 
or ceiling with honor,: especially today,: and where easy con= 
struction is sought,: the floor «= plane construction =- is in 
creasingly substituted for the vault;. even bridges coumonly 
have simple floors,: when formerly they were beautiful vaultae 
in stone.; Well,: it. is a loss,for the vault has a superb beans 
ty, a character of durability and grandeur,: that, nothing may 
replace.) Who will then dare to think of our cathedrals,: arch» 
es of triumph,: palace vestibulés and porticos,: withouy, the ; 
vaults that, are their nobility? Even from the point, of: view — 
of simple utility, the vault shelters better,: protects from — 
weather,: and if well constructed at, the beginnins,: resists 
time better than any other mode of covering our: edifices, 

It. lends itself to the most, magnificent. decorations and af» 
fords opportunity for: incomparable masterpieces. | 

Then I insist,: that, from the point, of view of composition,: 
there are capital differences between the: arch and vault,: ime 
portant to point, out. at. first. | 

The arch most. frequently exerts its thrust: lengthwise a wal 
and is ordinarily bbutted by it; if it, tends to produce ten~ 
sion in the wall,: it, does not: endanger its own overthrow,.; On 
the contrary, the vault, often thrusts against; the wall transe 
versely,: tending to push it over outwards.; Generally there 
fore,: the vault, is more dangerous than the arch. 

On the other hand, the arch is nearly always loaded by the 
construction above it,: but; on the contrary it is sought to 
not, load: vaults,: or to load them as little as possible, If 
they take the place of floors between the stories,: or if buil 
beneath terrvaces,: they evidently support. a load increasing 
the overturning action of their thrust; this load at least is 
reduced to a minimum.; And as for vaults with the funetion of 
merely closing the upper. part of an edifice,: like vaults of 
churches,. it, is necessary to take good care,: that, they bear 
nothing but. themselves;. hence it. would be a great, fault, to 


pot a, 
Sine 


dels adtsteoquoo qne0y bas 
Pay: egivaeddo dali 10 
ate i ‘ ‘enend 
toate? en3 to 
ed qusszsven 


r at 
ei ae Be ea carn 
ae 2 Pg! A Deh ie 


dd + (82.879) cavacd 


getit ab dt. 


/ §atoot To. Siowens} oda dtoqqua aodd edea 
deemete dnesitiagem se e1s eilwev Jedd sodaemee 

yeouskutg hae sondios ehasasb seu tiedé dod > edad 
i aainay goustenos ajueanstes vimitt bhlaede Jjosiidors © 
} fon aeoh) .asig etd ylisissisusg bas ,noidiaoquoo 
iddyseve \.sodoauso ht eigmsxe so} | Uidaeuper? cof 

siaisg anobeagat ot dud yuouoss sain of Jon:, 
sav soy has) isotois? e4s eeageiddud »,ntdd ood ata 
a betaxdeiso efi sansced).omse sii daui, hoile . 
«hapless esoisout eed Taseggss Jgadl 


Raia 


“edo 
mda ied 


Yo ebhned edd ni euoveaaes yrev ai dfasy od? 

din ybude of soy eaivie yisacrta o60% Jonnso 1 has 
Seda mi tdgued adidgacitinuey Yo eboddan odt siss ise 
Sto led dadd 20x o¢ saiilisoa: eLidw : weisosréanes 
,,8¥ievnco of yteaseoen di di 
| adlusy vise bas yese dinsed 


atove ot -eigqtoaniea s #i£ sien 
ensideeus Yo yliasbrecahal 
:, eds Senofinen 


Bie a ae eldsdilggs adidousdence Yo eacdsve 
x inedide, iiedd viibom ylbasviosg dadd bas .edivay 
1 to radial ‘Bdivsy .encde duo si adlosy ers saedt 
p ye bedaogque sdivev Isvasibem asinine Latrodue 
167R 8 ddinw jisev Sistemoeteds 306 enoga igo 3dl 
“quo nit nese vldasupet? ¢eow Jadt af eonsiesces 
get adi ai vkixusemtiag at ysusod edi s«atndogdinvss 
‘eoteds edd asve bas nokidgioost Ssyytgives 2¢i 
2 08 leout tise ai zdneatiinges bas eidos fin: bavods 


edd da eGtieyiso ef 3 fo Liss 


» doxs end bas nooddnad off. soati-cb=is¥ to saints 


pean din neve »,yveei cis. eiivay saedd dus 


6 doeduoo wi ets eitoeesov edd toddast «yilened vol 
iddua di a6 aedieQod beniduoos son zeaaly tuiet edd. 
«5 eae ge divav odd stoddeged ydifidade . 
lot sbae, Wademoetede to eonatoe odd yd baidauo 
in | engde Jue ni tivavy 2idd. ,eisdevivs: bos 
ad obtegtese besodge ed ¢aum dt ad ned? 
“dh guviones ateiq to alive efd,%o yéi 
i dsoia edd Yo esa rengedd atsdnd 


259 

make them support, the framework of: roofs,, : 

Remember that vaults are: a magnificent, element of: architece 

ture,: but; their use demands science: and prudence; that. the. 
architect. should: firmly refuse to construct. vaults when his 

composition,: and particularly his plan,: does not; permit. this, 

Too frequently,: for: example in chureches,: everything is car= 
ried,: not, to wise economy but, to imprudent. parsimony; walls | 
are too thin,: buttresses are farcivcal,: and yet vaults are de- 
sired just, the same,: because the celebrated churches are: vaul: 
ede. What; happens? Destruction,: more: frequently than you. 
“think 

The vault. is very dangerous in the hands of ignorant. men,: | 
and I cannot, too strongly advise you to study with the greate 
est, care the methods of verification taught, in the course of 
construction,: while recalling to you,: that. before oo 
it. is necessary to conceive,: and your econposition alone will 
permit. easy and sefe vaults,: or that. otherwise you should. 
make it a principle to avoid then.; 

Independently of questions of the forms of vaults,:to be 
mentioned later,: it, is first. necessary to distinguish three 
systems of construction,: applicable to the various forms of: 
vaults,: and that; profoundly modify their action and appearance) 

Phere are: vaults in eut. stone,: vaults in rubble or small 
materials,: and mediaeval vaults supported by archess, 

The cut, stone or stereometric vault: with a srand: monumental 
appearance is that. most frequently seen in our modern French | 
architecture.; Its beauty is primarily in its regular. jointing, 
its sculptured decoration and even the. stene.: Examples 
abound,: all noble and magnificent; it. suffices to cite the 
hall of the Caryatids at. the Louvre (Pig.: 433),: the middle 
aisles of Valede-Grace,: the Pantheon and the Arch of the. Star, 

But; these vaults are heavy,: even with the use of stone of © 
low density.; Further the voussoirs are in contact, only on 
the: joint. planes,: not. combined tofether as in rubble,: have no 
stability together; the vault, is then only maintained by the 
cutting, by the science. of stereometry,: and for the same span 
and curvature, this vault, in cut, stone thrusts. most. stronsly.; 
Then to it, must. be opposed energetic resistance by the shah 
ity of the walls or piers receiving Lbs: 

Rubble vaults are those of: the great, Roman/monimeata repre~ 


3 yor wort nedad wolomexe odd at Liadob ai bedaae 
eset}, gitswoh eel sedo 1tdeH of JtA'd .watodd .if 
_Sagevee bas ended odd ;moeddneS edd as dove ,( 0d 
Saheats ea Dedseoos ei nogefeda edi oyed? .catisgeda 
tiyo: Yo seadisserenes fase sedizdos ib eid baole 
Se: beddin -jadieav lestasdqs Yo eleliatseg bas sagifiaves 
. ot divev rest ni Bemdidaos sedoxs adibiedodib Ye eneidanidacs 
painay beddia-edé Yo sehi yissing edé} eedors daisd .tisa 
rot Me adveg/Isidwesce edd oniatedeb (aeze slbbin etd. 
sone siete odd moenied seosge ont {VES BF) aaisourde 
ses var nes seoins.ederonon to Gxae @ > ,olddwa. yd be 
af uM sy to yidexelerg ,en0d2. Ie seocig bas allege adosa: 
feex singoloy ai yidnebauds busot  ,saods eoiung 
isa tadioa. Yo bed s at dee efeisodea ilase seers Yo 
7 Grasiddes ‘Bt gentdd ecoduy» diticsom Yo s108 8 e Lode 
oo ed Qt sooe gauges iisde I-.ad¥eesd di aselan -~ Liew 
a ata , readeutdd Io agids 

— elsiseden iisme si siluey exedé of 
Sigs. sie Yo adigsy atebom [le etil,adinsy 
> soaends edd oissiaedosisic a ze svat dio% 
jen odd déinw acitenttance oidiiloses gai 
oan $d4 setw eeess sta1 off ai Jqeoxs 
chit rs eae peimeewntseset puree: e{disiv to 


nga pune ‘Yo asain. bettinend dui bine > ‘ictal 
* ads f bas edit .boow to sified ova eid sese-ond 
We eldeivh epel down ein youd eofT .1eiasfo to gait 
Ma deca a ie chara to esense Ile of dost 
ae 1) osboow Jo esa oda 
sas ‘to, SAetnieh edd Yo deocs tsisi Lleda 1. 
a om aedw: me SS ES elbbia ede to adlusy sit 
; Se Mesahine eqwisedidors afisi mi #28 divsy eupigas 
ges xclfaco 4 ars etivev Iavesifier ~- uainaniped wii 
pa Asti? @ uadd acitgeonoo s-suel ete todd 10° 
: Qed ‘yes eoesd fectressid saodw ,zicesizegxe ovte | 
a¥OLis ; tw eno doidn ,wedeys eisiqnwoo 4 nt Soabas Jadt 
aduag 2 i ile ai notdsero g od od hevetiod ead aomidenos 
aaa ons. at mece od Yer sizoneg adit efdadtoil 
a | Ps ove sind soy node of) mad ym al 
Scapaage anol sedéet @ gnele voy baol 
ae v wanes ieee ad aint deren nak. 


Se ; % 
ey tes i re = Prk 


cy ‘tt we hich ce 
Brphcon see 


20 . 


sented in detail in the examples taken from the work of 

Me; Choisy,: L'Art, de: Batir chez les Romains (Figs,.; 434,: 435,. 
436),: such as the Pantheon,: the Baths and the Basilica of Con 
stantine., There the skeleton is accented by the use of bricks 
along the directrices and seneratrices of cylindrical vaults, 
meridians and parallels of spherical vaults,: with ingenious © 
combinations of discharging arches combined in the. vault. it~ 
self.) Brick arches (the primary idea of the ribbed vaults of 
the middle ages). determine the essential parts of the: con— 
struction (Fis.; 437).: The spaces between the: skeleton are fil 
ed by rubble,: a sort; of conerete,: whose excellent. mortar econ= 
nects spalls and: pieces of stone,: preferably of very light, 
pumice stone,: found abundantly in volcanic regions.; The use 
of these small materials set in a bed of.mortar. makes the. | 
whole a sort. of monolith,: whose: thrust: is: nothing: =- note. thi 
well -- unless it; breaks.: I shall return soon to on 
ation of thrusts.) 

To these vaults in small materials may be added Sher brick 
vaults, like all modern vabits of Italy and Southern France.: 
Both have. as a characteristic the absence of vaulting,: seek-_ 
ing monolithic construction with the necessity of plastering, 
except. in the rare cases when the vaults appear with intrados 
of visible. bricks.; Unfortunately,: it; must. be said,: that, this 
wise construction of masonry vaults was not. that. of the 17th 
century,: and the beautiful vaults of Versailles and others of 
the same time are built, of wood,. ribs and laths with a covers 
ing of plaster,.; Thus they are much less durable and ate sub- | 
ject to all causes of precarious existence,: that result from 
the use of wood,; 

I. shall later speak of the decoration of the different. vaul 

The vaults of the middle ages «=~. when mo lonser merely the: 
antigue vault as in Latin architecture and even Romanesque: at, 
its beginning ~- mediaeval vaults are a comblex conception, . 
or rather are less: a conception than a final result, of sueces: 
sive experiments,: whose historioal trace may be followed, ‘and 
that ended in a oomplete system, which one might. believe,: and 
sometimes: has believed to be a creation in all its parts,; 
Notably its genesis may be. seen in the churches of Angers,; 

In my turn, to show you this: evolution,: I. am conpelled to 
lead you alongs a rather long and winding path.; 

You know that, to construct, a vault, -— whether of a bridge 


Bi eee Seer 


errr hs eA 
\ i : 
i Le ee , 


fe ik the yiessisoos seostise edd boow ai yLiraroqued 
— | beaogmoo at eoatave 2 iit. taobhatdat edt to ecéead 
se “a eg ‘Yo ‘astdaco heseurd yO bedtoqove ssedails 
= Dee atin baa bedsciicnoe ‘nedto ef yYténeqreo Ai 
ips gh BER: faRET) -podo : wiaduds «uals : emeod jateod 
p 207390 ou Yo adnewges edd dedd won adtwueaa 
Nitslsdisaeyg ei srocquva oredw éluay edd diesen 


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a 


dvd bedteqgue eis yedd we dlsav edd groqgue sons 
moo ‘udiusy ee beniteb od yeu edfins’ Isveaibe’ nat 
(ifame Yo atnewttaquoo baiicedgse esiors acts 
av edd moti ewox10d. gedd divsy isvesiben eat 
4 ad nowt: »pcoroeael edd bane nodaledsa edd Yo uditqsonse 
a So acideatg eft ewoiutod Jf. .sisev snade 
te 2 aaa edd ai wedd Bi ea ie fed Fai 
| @ao8 odd to anew od wi beiivd ab sedi 
aa #8 sadnemele ond casdd. to een bedidacs 
He edgurdg 24! | wasode two bedaia, ef? 
{4 Yo ov0ds gedd eagf dud ptivev neaot oe 
oe fsetittg axe scnnsseqgs bos todoutedo ad 
2 etoogd yifent? jadd: edta %o sedots edi Yo 
etaogat bane gnsgelo.yvaev saredsia> eaoidend amo 
ve! son ets) adis Foe stones eased? 30 sinise tidets 
it Re im: Vide 
Lod aa etisiev etd to mens sdd-o¢ sundey 1 
ee we edd Yo adfesobh edd Suited dads ‘wed steitioles 07 
paend 101 obivorg of won voy wods o8 dud »,nobtensde 
is. peameisiseges esoe Biave donneo 1 .nckidieog 
i medus nodT weds savore [Tiv Jostdue od? to 
5 is ,ysazesooe beshut ei di ,soitvediiqqs to exoid 
Pte ddiishilgge ett eidiezog atehass actdts 
meicveneete od 82 exocne® ‘of ‘1od: coliteog 
| Tasoqnos eid ,ddguodd' 02 Yi lenozses 
a aie: @eibicootoo wit Yo yiiiidateusseaas 
| te oe atin adime |. ytilideds edd eaiitsov 
pee de haere os wesoen ed di Bt ees dads at neve 6 .adaes 
Ea shia gs sf . aaa Reese ate cereal 
ay paw. sxasoed vans dias 2 cook 188 


a He 


Pilkpersates sahil Bal tett? ei esos ~~ ifsé « 40° 


-getsneo “6 e2inemtse edt eatsqaoo eagauts oft 


i aatood eexdase eeeid acd i betttateg teagan 2 at - 


261 

or: a hall -= there is first, required a centering,: producing 
temporarily in wood the surfaces accurately adjoining all | 
parts of the intrados,.; This surfacei:4s) coupesces ei 
timbers supported by trussed centres of carpentry.; This work 
in carpentry is often complicated and requires: much ingenuity 
The trusses comprise the segments or centres proper,: the f 
posts,: beams,: ties,: struts,: ete.: (Fis.; 438).: 

Assuming now that, the segments or true centres,: placed be= 
neath the: vault, where support, is particularly required,:to be 
in a manner petrified,: when these centres become arches and — 
then support; the vault,: as: they are supported by the center= 
ing. Mediaeval vaults may be defined as: vaults: composed of 
stone arches. supporting compartments of small materials.; 

The mediaeval vault then borrows from the Roman vault. the © 
conception of the skeleton and the filling; from the cut. i 
stone vault,: it: borrows the practice of stonecutting,; Its: or: 
iginal character i@ then in the projection of the skeleton, : 
that is buried in the mass: of the Roman vault,:« and in the 
combined use of these two elements; it. has the filling and 
the jointed cut. stome.; Its thrusts are greater than those of 
the Roman vault,: but; less than those of the stereometric vaul 
Its character and appearance are: primarily in the arrangeme 
of its arches or: ribs,: that, finally become very ae 
combinations,: although very elegant, and ingenibous.; In the é 
architecture of these vaults, the ribs are the key of the f 
study.; | : 4 

I. rsturn to the thrusts of the vaults,: not. to teach you. hi 
to calculate them,: that, being the domain of the course: én i: 
struction,: but. to show you how to provide for: them in the e 
position.; I cannot; avoid some repetitions,: but, the ‘etter 
of the subject; will excuse them.; Then entering into the que 
tions: of application,: it: is indeed necessary,: that; the me 
sition renders possible the application of the rules of con— 
position,: for: to compose is to foresee.; If you. divide your. . 
personality in thought,. the composer foresees and: ensures the 
constructability of his conception,: and then the. constructor 
verifies the stability,: omits or adds to. the essential elem — 
ments,: or even in that, case, if it; be necessary to seek a new 
arrangement,: the composer: will seek it ~— perhaps profiting 
by the lesson., | 

Why does a vault, thrust?’ Because it breaks; for no deform= 


| 


E aT, eer : i Tan Sie eS no | ew Nig > A, 1 tA e i wae) UP tae 
oxi Ad ere an i Se ae te eae ee i i ae Ace Serie hi, 
fy ee! ewe: 4 A come a 4 ' ae ee res) aay < 


Pa a - 
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Hidatioats: 6 Gant enveaa Sore: on ak aétse 
ed neo e¢ted eft Yo-eoneisdhe eds Isnt. .sroesezom 
Ty eifew of% mo d¢01 {fin Ji adleedoo ssiscelom 
4foteely a som ei gedT .danxdd on dvoue [din bre 
it) eiscbocdt "So. dmol edi. coitibe aeluoito s ei sa. 
) yomob. #: to S507 fi dio entde elgata a yd bersves 
pa Si wer hs i ds peddosy-s ton bos t9ev00 6 vi 
ipa ae Yo! aikido: ois fo naseet ys adeuris diay oot 
| ie 10 notice eigitiue set thesy @ to deurdé yrova 
re | iw, ined ivess @ mio? eesecide seeds .ielletsy 
J gaol 10 9705 et 31) .feacidsev 10 Ladaocirod ed nao tox 
qnoosb si tiv jnemindas. 10° {ian edé katdoow ho Spfed bas 
finos £ of s6ndo\ed? bax [adisaey eno ,eRotet ong. odal 
etot iesuosidod add>,ifew edd absol sorct Isaidrey 
istses ylinatotiive od [lew efd Li j.di deniars 
} to rise seemed {is Seaoggo aels fi ..worddieyo 
Yo drones awed ancients eee edd ed ‘eteds. ‘33 


t Sans wad: Jve “at ataind, and vefio? 
a | ‘~edivev egetosoo ai sno 
] gai beovborg sehicsib edd seve eanq | 
GGttose eld Ti sinemoly edi 1é ndtjos iso 
~ebae | -tadd .daiog issdiogai yxev « et eaidt 
k pe es ee fn teeh ede no jon faa aoid 

fe wei E okie dod foqderebhan Lid od 03 at. 2tst 
ee 18) beninsxs etolodesed fie.» ,soolt eben 
fe as et tivav edi: ,deo1 ta Aoisourdedoo Yo 
e188 af apitdifiupe otésia 10% ~sdnssevos ni paid 
e eis Yo. ytifidomai eds bas \ siisdifinpe olmenyh 
bon. ed gaemevem aids Ti ‘via beniadde ed [fix 
4. gist: eeongdedset dacistttue a ys bedssvexg 
Gott goa Jud », agig eid yd hailqque vilasaivg od 
a Be fuev « blind of ida tw wok <.2eignexe sauce sist 
ccheattetaedy wo +nsga aevig s to isJuev loanud 
bos aaitedaeo | iomae >, ddhiw jad Ylesinvesg - 
eniotds edd ailew taey adivin vd Jedd bolo 
poy) eats daso auld 10 od not Raibagda 
uetled Hiss’ soy agedied -.e14et 
ane tsgted nol io ei lehom awoy 21 
p edt Yo-fi dnedivest eid. idid yiev 
2 a NOY ‘Yo Aion ade ‘te avigoss badd 
ou “2 ; 


ore . on % oy ae 
Lah Rae Pek OT ee 
oi aA Cem.) yes eee ee me aA 


ae 


262 
ation is: no thrust, Assume that; a monolithic vault. be so hom 
mogeneous,: that the adherence of its parts can be compared to 
molecular cohesion it, will rest. on the walls as a covering,: 
and will exert no. thrust. That. is not. a fiction,: for at Rav 
na is a circular edifice,: the Tomb of Theodoric (Fig.; 439),. 
covered by a sinsle stone cut, in form of a dome; this is mers 
ly a cover and not, a vaulte: J 

The vault thrusts by reason of the mobility of its elements, 
Every thrust, of a vault, is a multiple ackion of stresses n 
parallel; these stresses form a resultant,: which neither is 5 
nor can be horizontal or vertical, 1t. is more or less obligue 
and hence on meeting the wall or abutment,: it, is decomposed 
into two forces, one vertical and the other horizontal.; The 
vertical force loads the wall,: the horizontal force thrusts 
against it.) If the wall be sufficiently resistant; te resist. 
overthrow, it. also opposes all deformation of: the vault, « but, 
if there be the least, pertial displacement. of the wall,: ther 
results a f@eformation of the vault; or reciprocally; cracks 
follow the joints in cut, stone vaults,: irregular: cracks oc- 
cur in conerete vaults.: i 

I pass: over: the disorder produced in a vault by the recipro 
cal action @f its elements if the sections are badly designed 
This is a very important, point, that. depends on the construc= 
tion and not, on the: desisn,} ; 

This is to be well understood,: that while the wall, idaho wa 
nade,: floor,: all heretofore oxenined,: are. generale 
of construction at, rest,: the vault is an element. of construc- 
tion in movement.; For static equilibrium is here substituted 
dynamic equilibrium,: and the immobility of the construction : 
will be obtained only if this movement, be not; suppressed but © 
prevented by a sufficient, resistance.: This resistance will 
be primarily supplied by the plan,: but. not. the plan alone.: 

Take some examples.; You wish to build a vaulted hall with 
tunnel vault, of a given span. You find somewhere a hall of: 
precisely that, width,: same centering and jointing.; You con- 
clude that. by giving your walls the thickness found in walls 
standing for two or: three centuries, you. will be free from al] 
fears.; Perhaps your: vault, falls.: _ | 

If your model is of low height, (Fig.; 440),. and your hall is 
very high,: the resultant, R of the stresses,: that do not leave 
the section of the wall of your model will leave it in yourss: 


d “20 “ara Lebo 3200 to ellen ead 9t susie eves “ 
Soe @eoaest Yasm ga joaose ddpil Vo eagoy fos 
D om a “ot gnfoltive aveadaid’ odd dneiat? 
te liaga teadées neddocs od ifiw gi bk 
pato. te tyottas twee: uilted to heatant aptia 
ae Gs Gedenanes Yo beaten t sods Ino AC 
duc a veaaaloeaad beteteofeo ed gen dads ir 
ida Lisi nobdteoqnos add dis,nefg end dno Ae! 
; pay Me mofisotYivev Lent? ed iets ce ,noes 
i, p.eofaado aftile sqeoxe nog fos od: yitton 
sth di iviesio? wot avode cios cone eitt 
: nopdiBogwoo pidy wot foe ,p9 be eid 
io Sdtiiieh.oxooed nso boo + fenciviv 
i cent sata eae xouse aw Rdevisie . 
-speutt? 


263 

If your model belongs to a ground story below several sto- 
ries,: the vertical load of the walls there is considerable, 
and consequently the resistance of the walls; if your: wall is 
in an edifice with merely a sround story,: the resistance Re 
will become insufficient (Fig.; 428).; 

If your: model be. vaulted with light, stone and your: hall wi 
heavy stone; if the walls of your model are of heavy stone 
and yours of light stone; so many reasons again render: insu 
ficient, the thickness sufficing for your model.) 

And it; will be another matter asgain,: if your: vault; be Segue 
mental instead of being semicircular or: pointed,: or if it; bey 
of cut, stone instead of concrete,: 1 

All that. may be calculated and verifited,: but. eS. in lay 
ing out; the plan,: in the composition,: all this should be fore 
seen, so that the final verification of the stability may hay 
nothing to act. upon except. slight. chanbes.: 

This: once more. shows how foresight; is the composition of ‘ 
the plan, and how this composition is at, first, entirely pro-= 
visional,: and can become definite only after: the study of the 
entirety,: a study peculiarly laborious in case of vaulted ed 
ifices,; 


> wASHNED Mi praeay mY AREGAHO | | 
Gadéiges Go nolioetid «=, TAAkNoe 
ae tends Adiw eiivalY ~= accel 
Mo eeenithtd ~~ ;.edeurdi Seisiiaeonas diiw 
ue v nanOR me qepcte M100 na -.@laingdel «-~ 2 Jinav ; 
. dives enote BI YTION Ha .I1ySa Ae lah + een Il 
6 Hae eétdoridanco So eneiteled «=-.ndisav Yo. 
# i hew ‘aint edisaY =~ teedivey Snisigid 
ea joann eg iyiwode hin ‘te noid 
Pas, > od nee ay ens Yo Ydisne dni. ema 41 
ah offer eid “So weeadotid ods vidnespernce tas 
o.ddte ndbsoesth “ted? basot-ed ‘yaw. nind ai sed? 
tog e823 Io nohdoedif Ralbrogeetioo oi as tiles 
cata efivit: fleda’t ees eo jnfegveled ost 
: st -equots 
ip euiwrite: nelaiattas eteueds sdiv wa snat 
Patek cgedantds hegenrsseowos fiir pethea® 
aes fesand 429ft.e1s vemret 2AT 
Beds cxslunos edd» dluev veteicis ef% to 
fe lg igiécon: @f dobdw + wet fenok¢leq # 0 
Sug BOisocetedn! mort diner yweivel edi 
Mae ealnav bac .eneiiarteneg Gilw dLisy 
4 Reaetie Her eqgde ed. gers Yeusdd exotiaw oT 
C wiles. etinoey eilney ladiiedge bes lenmnd dais 
odw)s,4 a BTR). eedili de apadquyl edd gud? *cesendteind 
3) al 2 bead , below Jjaedsibs Yo eecie2 + - So beseqnoo ef 
aie > odd ag j.Hsgael enites tiedg uci cilew evcenebon. 
e620 wer (Seb Pracey Moesgive? 26 nord 4.2. Y0 nalyg odd 
eutevenass bie ys. bedavegee ota gevisnckreg a 
ie tog elidtieb: ed etertdd Ue dinesars qiisudes 
i dea etdiaeogit: ct 41 .eneh dose to slencgatt 
points da lees end. 4ueditod rébdonwienoo edd Eaiwoda. 
eVidslenors eiieg geineves eis qbeteiidad 
| gtd So Bise ed yer Af bue + ook ia adi ued. 
teow et di » espaneaiensineee enpiins Ae bie, eae 
ie ee ie weebineddo ed: ton 
iets we bdisieo eatang medecip of 
elbbia ef dy Yo eneig eds eee oedh 
yo “to ows wae ge: 


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264 

CHAPTER VIII.: VAULTS IN GENERAL.’ CONTINUED,; 

SUMMARY; == Direction of resistances; study of points o 
support.; -~ Vaults with thrust, uniformly distributed.; == Vaul 
with concentrated thrusts.) -— Lightness of vaults.) -= Roman 
vaults.; ~- Materials.; -— Coffers.} -- Roman vaults of cut, ston 
Nimes,: Arles,: Syria.=s Coffers: in stone vaults:: == Projection 
of vaults.: ~~ Relations of construction and. decoration,; «=. — 
Lighting vaults.) -- Vaults independent, of walls. == stesso 
tion of vaults should be varied.: 


5 
If- the intensity of the thrusts ean be deberained see eeaai 
and consequently the thickness of the walls bo resist, them,. 
then in turn may be found their directibn with certainty,: as. 
well as the corresponding direction of: the points of support 

From this point of view,: I shall divide vaults into two 
sroups;} 
Vaults with thrusys uniformly distributed.; } 
Vaults with concentrated thrusts.: . 
The former are first, tunnel vaults,: then its special ease 7 
of the cloister vault, the annular,: the spherical, and that, 
on a polygonal plan,: which is merely a cloister: vault.; ‘ 
The latter result. from intersection of: vaults; cross oe 
F 


vault. with penetrations,: and vaults on pendentives,} 

To uniform thrust, must. be opposed uniform resistance,: so 1 
that, tunnel and spherical vaults require walls of uniform : 
thickness.) Thus the Nympheum at, Nimes (Fis.: 441),: whose. vaul 
is composed of a seriss of adjacent. arches,: has: thick and. how 
mogencous walls for their entire length.; On the contrary,: see 
the plan of S,; Front, of Perigueuk (Fig.; 442), ‘whose vaults — 
on pendentives are separated by wide transverse arches,: and — 
actually transmit. all thrusts to definite points on the four 
diagonals of each dome,.; It. is impossible te conceiveca> plaa j 
showing the construction better;. the resistance is: firmly ese 
tablished, the covering’ parts are relatively thin, everythang 
has its place,: and it. may be: said: of this. construction what; i 
Was said: of antique architecture; Ber een it. could: 7 
not. be otherwise: { 

No greater praise could be given to an architectural. works: 
Also see the: plans of the middle aisles of the Cathedrals of — 
Alby (Figs.; 443,. 444,). and of: Noyon (Fidss; 445, 446), 01%ea 


ee 


Sai ates Bats Yo dotog ones seh pee 
)eeebi dasniged &# eilveet toibeserg edd siodt 
aye No esetaah edd diiw siudoedidets Yo deeénoo 
tees ddide .pbenotinsm anced dent ved encisdentd 
ve oo oft -.eliew so esetq Yo vecisddiest To enace 
@ seomdduil geedeets esd eilvsy gnivig ai edeis 
- jndoogden atta ‘af evidousdeci yoov ‘eis edluev tam 
ane Yd ofen adiotie stove bostatetan yiseqoig of 
i :) Yiitastl edd evoteg Yilvi od baw s.viiuoiins 
> Ilede ew: en76% Ieindoedstiiote to foe sotdousse 
ent Jom yedindavoo ‘gueteliib ylevidwe owd ai Avow 
pains ee baxetto aisivesen ‘oft Qo exeden edd ai 
soonkaT mysidvob ni bas 
@k banovs edd ydintety edi wt fas owek JA 
ddgit snode esiaue basestad Jdgii gxev banct eve 
‘ Bx ses. et goaivendg jasdion “Yo nofaedba 10% f300% 
. [igo tetson dosffeoxe edd sie} od emil tafw be 
mk a tetotbes Gedd di exvat oadiap cl encdees i: 
$aped enodzeni{ s ylisisjweses él sonsvor? 
ws #8 Jeebou vsev 107 peve> eeu hommoo Ai. 
d i gtnelivoxe ai dedao€ j.tebdasw ese sist 
“id YLiess Bes! ,eesionsyd edi-so enodh edd moet sez 
on 4 peed ead tety iyhedate gnisd geoneveTIib esas 
paige = eeoe lo ddod ni neidetg sass end o° 
gee tstveder fiecd “lo ete en08 is -edivsv jsedb 
shies edd exif. dinev fennud ndiw fier spfet 
se dae todas’ to alone? 40 enidsadenad Yo soiLfic 
fone eseruad edi no bas tatusiaso ashoor s edoed 
| Sear eset ive edt No sadiidavence »atedais 
“@ ‘hecned bas beotge ylowie ei eidd a0 
eve Sits eetivek ed is .agdton bes eeaode adgif 
i pail nedseil 6d gf eneom laindes ed! bos) se0n 
“qinve Y e1e- eexod neboow sed exnees .veeeco 
J Bathroons esoneiaih $a uitvedaso. lev isbailye 
ot eee: e805 yeas ai etlatid efi to ancte 
tk eefois soisd faudos. eo ivvot wedsiad 
pasha dt at oe ts wtobsilys ed# to xisdoet 


76! ge “d one eee #Qeioind. hogs page: xd “atis 
eee eee re ‘ e 


f - : 
> Gai’ a Bide \, “ey ll 
gt ey esas An: 


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ie Taheis « Met as ig ‘omg 4 


Pee ee ee ee ee ee ee OP SP AE GO SS oe 
a mt ™" ae ai fc ‘ me Fe ys 0 4 ie 5 so “oS sity 7 ene oe ", os prin 
bd * i> ip a - p . — r re 4 5 5m 4 


a oe ar Lae 
i 


265. 


fron the same point of view,.: 

From the preceding results a dominant idea;. the perpetual 
contest of architecture with the dangers of the vault.; Com= 
binations have just, been mentioned,. which seek this aim by 
means of resistances of piers or walls., The counterpart: cons 
sists in givins vaults the greatest; lightmess possible.; Ro= 
fan vaults are: very instructive in this respect,.: 2 

To properly understand such efforts made by architects in — 
antiguity,: and to fully prove the identity of methods of con- 
struction and of architectural forms,: we: shall examine the 
work in two entirely different. countries,: not. in climate, : but 
ih the nature of the materials. offered by the eraniioe Rome 
and in gouthern France,; ‘ 

At; Rome and in its vicinity the ground is voleanic;. there 
are found: very Light. tufasand pumice stone lighter than water 
rough for adhesion of mortar; pozzulana is: also found and mix. 
ed with lime to fora the excellent, mortar called Roman cement. 
Limestone is: quite rare in that. region,: . 

Provence is essentially a limestone country,: cut; stone is 
in common use, even for very modest; structures.; Lisht, maters 
ials are. wanting.; Mortar is excellent,: but. sand must; be ta~ | 
ken from the Rhone or its branches,: less easily than today.: 

These differences being stated,: what. has been the solution 
of the same problem in both places? | | 

Great. vaults: at, Rome are of small materials,; Take a rectan= 
gular hall with tunnel vault,: like the side aisles ofthe Bas 
silica of Constantine: or Temple of Peace.; The architect; e= — 
rects a wooden centerins,: and on its trusses are laid jointed 
timbers, Seneratrices of the cylinder: (Fis.; 447).; 

On this is simply spread and tamped conerete composed of 
light, stones and mortar.) But, he desires still Sreater light- 
ness, and the natural means is to lighten the vault. by rem : 
cesses.; Assume that. wooden boxes are regularly placed on the 
cylindrical centering at, distances accordins to the dimen | 
sions of the bricks in uses. these intervals are filled with 
bricks formins actual brick arches in the direction of the: di: 
rectrix of the cylinder,: also. in the direction of the senerat» 
rix,: by bands of bricks.0n each box may be placed another,Thet 
the rubble or: concrete is applied.: After a certain time,: when 
the mortar has set, the centerin’ is removed and the boxes 


18 gso0T jepnisedoes etd no beesie vexod eid ‘to 
‘ Sandy. bas ybengidnes ‘e6xo0d eft ellisost enen ssoce 
e a yetodd ju ft bevicicxe ca. ,anewof edd gd etre 
wo avbute od m0y brensetes 1 Jens ,ediemoh eel egies 
angeeriedtZ oad s ‘Rdidaseexges | oh - SIF netied vei 
‘2no0D Yo ecilteas ‘@d3 Yo eiluev of d. tc aséet too 
fgnshdarabob inttors’. @ Son eeddict tetiad eff 
sgele bas Soistecqce hooped Enieswioci noiseud 
4 Bitetive efT seysw yoss og Gi fi Rniyisy yd dlvey 
i: Hews fo divev edd lo odiiadint na Ylerem ¢i civev 
oi Bi pes eonevars nl enoh aced ved dedi ees ey ded 
ie 250 Soe ee : neaode 
© feaand eu? -bodi0 daea ‘Ghoutie eae cuit 0 : shivtaniemel ent 
are 2. i904 ue cites jeek Yo eeires.s fo besoumoo ei ilney 
gisha eid? «(Od -.579) sdele ylno mex Jadd ,agdii lr} Alte 
6 ab queisoorir elgria s ni aud) ,éipien esowhes 
fs tad Rledansedle e¢ivey fenned To ecizeu. 2 od 
& mers 2eXE3) peiaa te exdseddiinqasé of d aA 
. tebe gnes yiteelo stom Jed: ,dnemeinerts vee 


ai 8 et is yearns ene bedote queide . 


he sid rar Peace bixinudtole: 


aye > “eapendgeabiag visas Yo eadotods naiay? Kiedis 
4 eae ers géivey geddu,e8tel lo solfic 
< ie, aN ae ii): te@emit Yo avedgays 
ps: sed tan st ased%oo Ate eaade ‘So eilusv vot 2A 
add bi fanaa nareneciaes ‘Qo disees add don ai aids gande 
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266 

alsoe; You then find recesses: in the vault,: the counterpart: 
of the boxes placed on the centering.; These are coffers,: 

whose: name. recalls: the: boxes mentioned,: and were ealled lacunm 
aria by. the Romans,: as. explained in M,; Choisy's Art; de Batir 
chez les Romains,: that. I. recommend: you to study,: and from whi 
is taken Fig.) 448,: representing the construction with ribs am 
coffers of the vaults of the Basilica. of Constantine.: t 

The coffer: is then nob a fanciful decoration,: but is: consts 
ruction increasing the good appearance and elegance: of the 
vault; by varying it. in so many ways.: The coffer. in the stone 
vault; is merely an imitation of the vault. of: small materials; 
) Let, us see what; has been done in Provence for vaults in cub 
stome,: ' | 

The Nyapheum of Nimes has already been cited,.; The tunnel 
vault: is: composed: of a series of deep arches supporting in 4 
rebates: fillings,: that, axe only slabs (Fig.: 449), 2 This again 
reduces weight,: but, in a single direction;- it, may be said: to 
be: a series: of tunnel vaults alternately thick and thin,; 

At, the Amphitheatre of Arles (Fig.; 450).is a quite. analo- 
gous arrangement,: but. more clearly arransged.; A series of 
strong arches: are separated by regular distaness less than 
the length of a slab. This slab is horizontal and forms the — 
floor of an upper. gallery.) The two systems them have the same 
longitudinal section,: but, the transverse sections are very 
different, as may be. seen by the sketches,; I can also cites 
certain Syrian churches of early construction,: like the: Bas ; 
Silica of Tafka,: whose vaults are concreted like those. of the 
Nympheum of Nimeg,- 

As for vaults of stone with coffers, it, must. be recognized 
that, this is nob; the result, of construction,: and: that, there 
may only be seen an imitation of the true coffers of vaults 
in small materials.; In a vault, of cut. stone, jointed in rege 
ular courses as a tunnel vault left, visible,: the coffer can 
scarcely be treated: except; as: a sunken ornament; the constr 
tion not, being based on taking into account: the coffer,: or 
rather: the coffer not, being herecthe skeleton of the vault, 
it is necessary for the vault to have its required section — 
outside the coffers,: thus: beins necessary to ensure an exces 
of thickness,: the coffer: scarcely counting for the. stability, 

We are far from the rational theory of great. stone ceilings 


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267 

with strong supporting parts and their compartments.,; It, 
would be extremely interesting to study in stone a vault. 
with coffers forming a real skeleton,: one would then have. 
true. arches with their: transverse connections,:a skeleton com. 
plets in itself and remaining open if desired;. thin slabs or 
small materials forming the ground. of the compartments,; This 
would. be the: idea of the ceiling of the Temple of Mars: the A- 
vensger applied to vaults.) ~— But in other: forms this: would be 
the system of construction of vaults of the middle ages,, ints 
secting ribs. supporting the vault,: coffer: construction instea 
of coffer: decoration.,; | 

For the vault. in cut. stone, the rational docerahehk is not 
the: compartment, or sunk coffer,: in spite of the very beautin — 
ful examples.) What, is: satisfactory is decoration by projectm 
ing compartments Fig. 454).; The: vault. has everywhere the dew 
sired thickness;: and nothing prevents,: that. where mouldings — 
should enclose compartments,: a row of voussoirs from having’ 
an extra thickness and projecting from the intrados..It is © 
@ mere question of stone,: but. for this the decorative arrange. 
ment. must: be decided in advance,: which is rare,; | 

In a general way,: it. may be: said that vaults in cut. stone: 
do. not; attain all the beauty of which they are capable,: un= 
less: their decoration and ‘construction are intimately con 
nected.) This forms for me the sreat. charm of the vaults: of th 
middle ages,: either: simple. as: in the 13th century,: or: refined 
as at, 5S.) Eustache.; Unfortunately most, vaults in cut, stone ars 
decorated by compositions afterwards, and sometines the joint» 
ing is singularly opposed to the decoration,: 

Nothing is more contrary to actaal facts: and the eternal 
principle: of art.: . 

Construction and decoration are bub, one thing, which is ar- 
chitecture.; When I. speak of vaults,:« can I’ separates: in that. 
theory these two ideas? Is the coffer of Roman vaults con 
struction alone or decoration alone? Are the ribs: of: mediaen 
val vaults. construetion only or. decoration only?’ Bach of thes 


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268 
ideas would be incomplete without, the other.; When once con— 
structed,: these vaults may be said to be decorated.; And now 
where is that. more apparent. than in the vaults of the middle 
ages. He find these vaults very rich in effect,: ingenious: and 
attractive,: and the decorative purpose certainly is: manifests 
ed: in them,: particularly in the 14th and 15th centuries,: 
But, it, is decoration by constructibdn,: by the ribs and various 
arches,: 1,8.,: the construction itself; construction designed 
for: the two purposes of stability and of ornamental appear= 
ance.) When finished,: what; remains: to be done in the decora= — 
tisn? Nothins,: for on the removal of the centerins,: the vault. 
appears. sufficiently decorated by its structural elements, 
If something more is to be added, this is only to paint, it,: — 
i.g.-,: to decorate it, sometimes,: more frequently to spoil its: 

This general explanation of the architecture of vaults alsa 
requires two essential considerations,: before passing to the 
study of each vault. in particujar .: Vaults should in Seneral 
be lighted directly. We sometimes see in restorations of an= 
tigue monuments and in Italian architecture vaults above light 
openings and without. any direct, 1isht,: and even in Paris may 
be cited a very beautiful example,: the Gallery of Apollo.: ~ 
Such vaults risk being dark,: at least. with us,: and it, appea s 
to me difficult; to risk at, Paris the magnificent, cloister: ¢ 
vaults: of Palace Pitti’ in Florence.:; The Gallery of Apollo is 
exceptionally lighted: by its. situation,: and it, is not well t 
that it, is: quite segmental.; But, when one has a semicircular ~ 
section like the waitins hall of the Palace of: Justive,: Sar 3 
Sulpice,: ete.,: the necessity for lighting is evidently imposed 
on the architect,.: As for the lighting of cross vaults,: penden 
tives ete.,:we shall reaurn to them in speaking of vaults in 
particular,: ‘ 

The other consideration to be explained,: the more since you 
very frequently commit, grave faults therein, is: that, your 
vaults should be independent from the rest. of tha construction 
Excepting the ilposts,: every stone. common’ to walls and vaults 
will be exposed to rupture.: Thus: to make. myself clearly une 
derstood, I go directly to the. aim of my demonstratibn and say 
reserve the construction of your vaults to later, and erect; 
them after. your. edifises are built.: 

That. may surprise: you after speaking to you so frequently 


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of Liaity and of} naesbindZO@s: wean the ai?fe rene Bares ql 
of solidity and. of connection between the different, parts of 
@ structure,: and I must, explain,: 

It, was previously stated,. that; the vault, is an element, of — 
Const nuction ih movemeat.; This definition is given in oppo= — 
sition to walls,: colonnades,: etc.,: that; form construction in 
repose.) 1. might, say,: never connect; together: movement, and ree 
pose, but, this would be a bit, of metaphysigs,.; 

Then assune that. in a ground story has: been erected a vault 
in cut, stone. at, the same time as the construction of the wal. 
combined: with that. construction by as: many bonds and through © 
stones. aspossible,i What, will -happen?: Every wall sstiles verte 
ically and every vault. horizontally.) While the stone: common 
bo both is displaced: vertically by the settlement; of the wall 
it; tends to be: displaced horizontally by the settlement, of- : 
the vault,: which produces rupture.; The imposts alone ( Pig.: 
452) are subfected: by the wall and the vault. to a nearly 
vertical movement; downward.: Besides, the impost. cannot, be« 
lons to both wall and vault.; Henee you should erect, the. 
walls ineluding the imposts,: reserving the vaults,: 

There are other: reasons for: this,.: If your. vaults: are built. 
before the upper: stories are erected,: the abutments of: the 
vaults are not. loaded,: and the centering cannot. be removed. 
without, risking the overthrow of thw walls by the thrust, of : 
the vaults.: Further, if the vaults are: built, at. the same. time 
as: the. walls,: they will serve as scaffolds and to receive ma 
terials -~ whatever you do -- and they will be overloaded. | 
and destroyed.; Finally,: the vaults: will be constructed befor 
the building is roofed and will receive rain and snow te the 
great: injury of stone: and: mortar.: 

The conclusion is that; vahlts should never: be built. before. 
the building has: received its: roof.: The design must. then per: 
mit, the construction of the. vaults to be reserved in buildin 
the walls; I desired to state this: in saying,. that. the. vault: 
‘lust. be: independent of the. rest. of the Gonstruction,., Then 
such was: the custom in the: epochs when vaults were. most, skil 
fully employed.: Thus at; Fontainebleau, the great, festal hall 
termed gallery of: Henry II. was: first. designed to be vaulied;. 
the imposts are still visible,: but, the vault. was: not, built,« 
@ ceiling beings preferred for the hall,: which could be. done 
without; demolition.; So to make myself understood by a simple 


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and the end of this’ vault, be: closed by a wall,» b. 
should ignore the abuttins’ of the. vault,. betwee 
and the wall being a single continuous and semi 

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| 271 
CHAPTER IX.) DECORATION OF VAULTS, : | 
- SUMMARY, "== Respect. for: the. form of the vault.) += Panels 
~~ Painting.; ~—- Decorative painting.; -- Fresco.) -— Renaissane 
paintings.j; -- Modern paintinsgs.; J 
‘ 

A word now on the decoration of vaults in general.; It, will” 
be very different, from that. of ceilinss.; For ceilings: the | 
aobives: ca&l for: accented projections a robust, appearance: of 
_ the construction, variety in depfhs of the compartments,: al- 
ways to correct, the disagreeable and disquieting impression 
produced by a great. horizontal plane,: reassuring the observer 
by accenting the energy by strons reliefs.: : 

The contrary is true for the vault,: for its form is reassup 
ing,: and is further flexible and agreeable in appearance,: | 
‘The decoration should not, deform it,: and no applied decoratia 
should: be sought,: whose heavy appearance: would cause anxiety, 
Examine the vaults richest. in decoration, in stone. notably 
those of Church Val-de-Grace,: with applied ornament, those. 
of ths Gallery of Apollo; the panels,: mouldings and every~ 
thing has slight. projection,: and you perceive everywhere the 
harmonious unity of the cylindrical vault,: that. nothing’ de- © 
forms.; Note also that; these decorations project,: for I insist 
on that,: which cannot, be otherwise; you then commit, a grave © 
fault, by indicating sunken compartments in a vault,: which rem 
quires. an unequal and impossible construction (Fig.: 453);. thi 
decoration should consist, in applied projections as shown by 
Fis.; 451,60 that. the ground of the compartment, may be the. 
vault, itself,; 4 

We frequently see your: sections: of tunnel vaults Siven as 7 
in the sketch (PFis.; 454),: which is simply impossible,: requi - 
ing an enormous mass to be suspended from the vault.; Observe 
beautiful models and you will abandon this vicious indication 
bad in construction (I eannot, even indicate the jointing in 
the sketeh),: and whose effect. ~~ if: execution were possiblel i 
“= would be perfectly disagreeable.; : | 

I. shall not, treat, of decoration derived from the construc= 
tion itself,: having cited to you on that. subject, the vaults 
of the middle: ages,: Certainly for vaults will be found there 
the most, complete identity of construction and decoration,: 

A mode of decoration very appropriats: for vaults is paintey 


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272. 
ins); Much more: than the ceiling,: the vault, offers an ad= 
mirable field for painting presented: normally to the eye of 
the observer;. to ses the paintins of vaults,: no curvature i 
risked,: and: the perspective is easily satisfied. But: there 
are two species of paihting,: that: purely decorative and the 
painting of subjects.; Let, us take the first,;. 
At, least. for: us,: it, is: of GrecomRoman orisin.; The vault; | 
of small materials requires: plastering in order: to not, remaii 
roush like a cellar: vault.; This plastering originates stucco: 
and paintings of vaults; another example of the effect. of 
construction on decoration,; : 
Stucco =- which it. is unnecessary to understand in its act 
ual sense ~~ was a coating of lime mixed with marble dust,: © 
and while still fresh, this: plaster: was: modeled in delicate 
and spirited sculptures,: that; owed to this improvisation an 
exquisite freshness, Our casts in carton-pierre or staff ean 
not; Sive its: idea,: for it, is: a lost, art,: to be profoundly re 
gretted., Scarcely except; at: oaks monument. of Ita. 
ian execution,: are found near. examples of this beautiful art: 
of decoration in stucco,: notably on the vault; of the chap= 
el,; 4 
But, most; frequently the decoration of this plastering cons 
Sisted of paintinsgs,: the process beings fresco or painting on 
the: fresh plaster.; While the: plaster is still fresh (fresco). 
must, ib; be painted rapidly and without. retouching,: in a sort, 
of water: colors.: The motives: are designed in advance by means 
of cartoons,: sketched with spirit, and painted in a few hours, 
No mode of painting has the artistic appearance of fresco,: A 
With its charm of freedom and of execution both rapid and a 
studied.; Nothing resembles: it, less than our: rather mechanic= 
al decorations with stiff outlines and fastidious regularity 
By this: means Grecian art. painted. on vaults ornamental com- 
positions,: that. leave to the vault, all its curvature,.and 
move in a charming fancy.; Such are the paintings of Pompeii 
and. of Herculaneum,: and. such must. have been especially those 
of the Golden House of Nero and of the Baths of Titus,: known 
bo Raphael,: the starting point; of those exquisite paintings 
of the Renaissance,: that. so far excelled their models, the 
loggias of the Vatican already shown to you and the vaults .of 
Villa Madama (Fig.; 495).; In Italy are very numerous examples” 


4 


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in palaces and villas,: as: at, Palace del Te at. Mantua,: in the 
celebrated gallery of the Carrachi: in Palace Farnese: (Pig,: | 
456),: Villa of Pope Julius II) at: Caprarola (Fig.: 457),. Villa 
Pia and the Library of thé Vatican.: But, unfortunately it: is 
an art,: few examples of which can be indicated here,: flor we. 
have no equivalent, (except. at; Fontainebleau,; 

But. the Renaissance: went. farther as you know,: and it decora 
ted vaults by historical or allegorical paintinss,: It. is 
probable that antiquity was acquainted in a certain measure 
with these decorations; the mosaics of the Byzantine epoch 
must; be a tradition of a more: ancient; art.; Between these mno- 
saics and the paintings: of the age: of Pericles must; be: a con 
siderable dirrerence as in sculpture and: architeeture.: Such 
as. they have come to us,: those Byzantine decorations,: stiff. 
and hieratic,: have: a grand style and character.. They partion 
ularly extend on the walls,: yet, we see numerous examples on , 
the vaults,: almost, always on spherical vaults,: pendentives or 
apses.} Those of Ravenna and of S.: Mark give us an idea of 
What; @, should be =~ still under the Turkish whitewash =~ the 
mosaics of S.: Sophia of Constantinople.. Among the most. beau= 
tiful are those: of Monreale in Sicily,: perhaps especially 
those of the Chapel Palatine of Palermo; it. is: difficult. to z 
give an idea without; the coloring,: but, I desire. at. least, to 
have you judge of their composition by a general view of the 
last. chapel (Fiss,: 458, 459).: But there is really only an | 
imasery.} This word is used without. any thought, of: critipisn; 
I. will show later the thought, directing the relidious painte 
ing of this ancient. time,: with isolated figures on a uniform 
and usually golden ground,: with neither linear nor acrial per 
Spective,: and not paintings with all its means. Picturesque 
Composition appears with the Rehaissance amons artists termed 
primitive,: so respectful for architecture and careful for. pro: 
portion and harmony,:in brief so disinterested,: as shown by — 
the admirable paintings of Assisi? (Figs.; 460,. 461),: it, devel= 
ops and: attains its: climax with Raphael and Weholangelo,: its. 
greatest splendor with the: Venetians,: 

I do not. have to speak of paintins’ sihesiius. than in its | 
relations with archibecture.: What shall I say of the vaults | 
of the Sistine Chapel? Great, sorrow is: silent,: says the. poet. 
Great, admiration likewise.; The admirable sculptor--Michel~ 


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274 | 
angelo «= became: a painter: and: again excelled in the fres= 
cos of the vault, attaining absolute perfection,: and as an ? 
artist; places himself beside Phidias,: whom he surpasses. 
morally by the entire sublimity of- his: thousht;. There: are | 
emobions,: that; cannot; be analyzed =- make a pilsrimase to ae 
Sistine Chapel,: seeking neither: model aor inspiration,: save. 
for. a man in twenty centuries,: a paragon,: for these are. inac 
cessible heights,: and whoever attempts to ascend them Ae eae 
midway erushed! 

Return to architecture in this decoration of vaults.: The 
‘dasterpisees of this kind have in common,: that. the paintings 
does not. conceal the vault: nor: destroy its forme; The panels. ‘ 
in relief: or: painted represent, possible openings in the. vault. 
in which it. is possible to perceive a subject. ~~ I do not, "7 
wish to use the word painting,.; «— It. is for the architect; to 
limib, the part. of the painter,: to arrange: the compartments: of 
his vault, so that, it, remains possible and satisfactory, if ; 
the parts were open instead of pictures,: for the painting rep. 
resents distances and the openings in the vault. I may here i 
cite a colossal error.: In Palace del Te at. Mantua,: Giulio Bol 
mano in painting those charming vaults also decorated the 
hall of: the sgiants.: The: vaults and walls form but. a single 
surface with rounded: angles and no separation.; Colossal fise) 
ures =» giants == cover: walls and vaults,: the upper parts of © 
the: bodies on the vaults, the lower: on the walls.; The doors 
are also cut. in the same painting.: It. is frightful and can ot 
ly be regarded as the debauch of a great. artist.: All that, cam 
be said: of the decoration of the vaulis,: is that; the eye al 
ways follows the vault: through the entire. decoration,: 

In the modern epoch,: Painting has been. more. dominant. in the: 
decoration of vaults,: and little by little compartments have. 
Siven place to painted or carved panels,: rather: composed for 
painting than the painting for the coupartments.: Such is the 
Spirit; of the paintings of the vaults of Versailles well 
known to you,: whether in the great, salons or the. vault, of the 
chapel.; Unfortunately in France. «~~ except. at. Fontainebleau, a= 
are no longer freseos,: and oil paintings darken.) Again unf or» 
tunately,: those: magnificent. vaults of Versailles are not: con= 
structed in masonry,: but, are formed by a series of curved } 
wooden ribs,: on which are nailed laths to reesive the plaster» 


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275. 

ing.; This is’ a curved ceiling by construction.: All assta. 
accidents common to wood oceur and compromise the. decoratior 
of these: vaults,: and consequently that, of the paintings dec» 
oratins: then.; 

The beautiful engravings after Lebrun give an idea of thes 
compositions,: and. I’ give only the very reduced. development, o! 
the. vault, of the gallery of the mirrors (Fig.: 462),: adding 
for comparison the most, beautiful example: of this kind: of 
pompous decoration,: the celebrated vault by Pietro de Corton 
on Palace Barberini, from a very beautiful drawing of: M.: 
Brune.; (Fig.; 463).; 


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276 
CHAPTER X,; THE DIFFERENT: SPECIES. OF VAULTS. : 
 SUMMARY,; == Geometry of: vaultss; «= Their: Seneration.; == 
Tunnel vault.) -~ Pransverse arches. =~ Cloister vault.» —=Pl 
Square,: rectangular or polygonal.: =» Spherical vault.; «— Lane 
tern.; «= Cross vault.: «— Piers.; «= Lighting. -— Halls of 4 
Baths,: «« Penetrations.; -— Cross vaults and raised penetra= 
tions.: == Cross conical vault.: -- Torus or semi-torus vault.) 
ete Spherical vault. on pendentives.: ~» Interruptionsj« drums a ; 
domes. =» Vaults on ribs (mediaeval ).*-~Pointed cross vaults.: 


Everything just, stated applies to vaults in general.;: It; — 
remains to see the reasons causins the adoption of one vault 
rather: than another,: in each particular: case.; It: is nesessa= 
ry to rapidly review the various species of vaults,: not; from 
the: point; of view of stereotomy,: but. in their relations to | 
the general composition,: | 

In case of vaults, you can never: neglect, stereotomy,: for 
you can neither compose nor design vaults,: unless: you con- 
menece by perfectly understanding their: geometrical senera-~ 
tion.: Hlemantary vaults have a very determinate generation; — 
thus in Roman antiquity,: vaults are. distinctly cylindrical or 
spherical.Later: the generation of surfaces is no longer so si 
ple;. there are raised: cross vaults ealled bishop's cap,: whose 
surfaces are quite uncertain at, first, sight; similarly for. ~ 
trumpets or certain penetrations.) Only general advice: can be 
Siven in this respect,: first. to advise the very serious study 
of stereotomy,: then to observé: as: many vaults as possible,: 
first proposins these questions; What, is that. surface?' How 
is it, generated? Can it, be developed?’ And in the: contrary 
ecase,: what, may be the rational procedure for its: study? 

Note: carefully,: that, it. is: particularly in the study of ~ 
vaults,: that, the architect, needs all he has learned in ele=— 
mentary and descriptive geometry,: and this for only drawing | 
them,: without; speaking of the nethods to. be: employed for. the 
verification of their stability.: Thera: is a grand: art, in | 
vaults,: but. this art, is: denied. to one not possessins the nec 
essary science,; 

The. simplest; vault. is the tunnel vault,: purely cylindrigall 
whether: its section be semicircular, : elliptical or: oval.: It: 
eequires walls of uniform resistance,: its character should 


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[ete oie seoit®: sowie 2 Yo alecado Levodst 643 
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(ints estovenstd. 

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277 . 
correspond to that, functoon,: and generally ita decoration em. 
phasizes by its unity tbhecunity: ofceomposition: and of action 
of the vault.: 

In seneral the tunnel vault. is: long): its eharhaeee beins 6 
accent, a direcimon,: the hall beins vaulted.in.a- single sensay: 
and there should be no hesitation in that, respect.;, The tun= — 
nel vault, on a square or nearly square plan is then not. sata 
factoey,: for one asks why the hall is: vaulted in one direct 
ion rather than in the: other.; Yet, if the tympanums are pierce 
ed for: lighting,: the arrangement. is justified; or again if 
the: tunnel vault, is connected with other vaulted: parts,: like 
‘the lateral chapels of a church,: whose side aisles have: cross 
vaults. The tunnel vault then almost. plays the. part. of a 
transverse. arch,; 

If the tunnel vault; is uniform in cbdnstruction,: its decora= 
tion materially consists either of coffers,: of compartments 
with projectins enclosures,: or finally of paintings.; Only by 
a development can you study these arransements,: ; 

Tt will also be frequently divided by transverse: arches, | 
either for appearance,: or because: in an upper: story it is neg 
essary to support; walls or partétions.: The transverse. arch 
is then structural or simply ornamental. This function will 9 
be a primary condition of its desisn,: and if: it is loaded in 
a particular way,: it: is first mecessary to satisfy that voq- 
uirement,: the effect. of which reacts on the plan by requiring 
buttresses or other means: of resistance under: these arches.; — 

‘If the transverse. arches are merely decorative,: before de= 
termining their projection from the intrados of the vault, tht 
architect must, first, decide. if he prefers to emphasize the 
length of the nave,: or: on the contrary to acesnt its division 
in bays;: in the first, case the transverse arches will project 
little; in the second they will be more pronounced.: And: sines 
the projection of the arches depends on projections arranged 
in the plan,: in the study of the plan must. be foreseen this — 
seeking for appearance,: | 

The tunnel vault, risks being dark,: and such are frequently — 
the. Waults of the first, Romanesque epoch.; But, in churches, 
at. least, in France and in northern countries,: one is aceustom 
ed to this darkness of. vaults producing a mystical expression 
Elsewhere this: defect. would be more. strongly felt.; Hense. 


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“oA. es «= and the sublimities of the Sistine Chapel! 


278 
sreat; tunnel vaults pequire means of lighting by penetrations 
of windows: of a special kind, often taking a particujar form 
like oval windows.; I cannot. do better than cite the waiting: 
hall of the Palace. of justice at. Paris (Fig.; 73).; The: tympa- 
nums: at; each end. are opened in great; senicireular: windows, 
and in each bay is: an oval window; these windows combined u- 
niformly light; the vault,: permitting its arrangement, to be 
seen well.; One of the most: beautiful examples of the: tunnel : 
vault. with penetratins windows is that; of the vestibule of 
Peter at, Rome.; 

Most; frequently the penetrations are. rectangular. windows at 
bottom,: arched at, top.; Such are the numerous: vaults of mod . 
ern churches.; This kind of: penetration is analogous to the 
cross vaults to be. mentioned,; 

Finally are rarely rectangular penetrations,: which always — 
have a certain dry appearance. opposing to the flexible form of 
the vaulte; 

As for. the decoration of- tunnel vaults,: it. is infinite,, — 
from the monumental arrangement. of great. coffers emphasizins 
the solemn character of the edifice,: as at: the Arch of the 36 
Star,: to the sparklins richness of the gallery of Apollo,: the 
golden gallery of the Bank,: the gallery of mirrors at. Versail 


The cloister vault, is: nothing more than the tunnel vault, in 
‘two directions instead of a single one,: being the intersect. 
ion of two cylinders with generatrises respectively parallel 
bo the four walls of a hall,: from which they spring: : 

The perfect cloister: vault; is built. on a square plan.; Buby 
frequently an exact; square is not, possible in a fixed compom 
sition and the: hall is rectangular.: Then the vault. eonsists: i 
of two. eylinders of different, sections,: as one will be semi: 
circular and the other semielliptical.: But. if there are no 
difficulties in construction,: the appearance: is not, pleasing 
if they are too different; one: is: shocked by the contrast, — 
between the four: parts of a vault,:two being semicircular and 
two quite: flattened.: The rectangle forming the base: of a 
cloister vault, cannot, vary much from a square.; 

It. is entirely otherwise for. the vault; composed: with 
cloister vaults at, the extremities of a tunnel vault,: 
like the vault of the gallery of Apollo,: where the section i 


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279 
the: same throushout,: and the two half cloister vaults: have ~ 
their: crowns connected in a manner by a ridge line.; This is 
badly suited to a plan too nearly square,: but; is particularly 
adapted to lons galleries by its freedon.: 

The polygonal plan is also naturally covered by a cloister 
vaubkt.: 

Like the tunnel vault,: the cloister vault, risks being dark, 
What, was said of the tunnel vault, also applies here,: the cloi 
ter. vault: being suibed to all combinations of lighting by pen 
etrations adapted to the tunnel vault.: 

As for decoration,: the cloister vault, is particularly the © 
ornamental vault.: Very Simple,: it, is already decorative: by — 
the flexibility of its lines; examples may be seen in the = 
ground storyof the Louvre.; Richly decorated, it, lends itself” 
to the most beautiful combinations,: some examples of whish ~ 
may be cited; in Italy,: the admirable. vaults of: Palace Pitti. 
(Fig.; 464) and of the Borgia apartments in the Vatican,: with 
So many others; Here the gallery of Apollo,: the golden gal- Ei} 
lery of the Bank (rather: a tunnel than a eloister vault),: and 
particularly the magnificent; halls of the second story of the 
Palace of Versailles,: called salons of Peace and of: War;. fins 
ally in more modern style, the square salon and the ahll with 
seven fireplaces at. the Louvre, Only take care that: the deca 
oration gives value to the: vault. by accentins its curvature _ 
and height,: Decoration that, does not, clearly emphasize a . 
vault. kills it;- thus: at: Florence the cloister vault, of the ce 
tral dome of the Cathedral,: which is quite pointed, is abso= 
lutely killed by Vasari"s paintings; in observing it,: one doe 
not; know whether it. is a vault, or: a esiling,: because the 
Structural lines of the vault; -- its concave groins =-are. me 
ed by a painting without, divisions,: which under pretext of 
unity is nothing more than disorder.. 

But. judicious decoration is permitted. by the plan.: If the 
hall to be decorated only has: flat, walls with simple doorway 
for. access,: the vault. rests on the walls and the. decoration 
remains very free.: But. if the walls are much opened by arca-= 
des or eolonnades,: these divisions may partly determine the. 
decoration, which will be greatly restricted unless the hall 
presents angles of a certain value.; The plan is always the 
key to all foresigsht.- 


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280 

From the vault, of a polygonal to that of a circular hall i 
a very natural transition; in geometry the circle is regarde 
as a polygon with an infinite number of sides.; Yet. the dif- 
ference between these: two vaults is profound.; While the cloi 
ter and tunnel vaults are regular: and developable: surfaces,: 
the spherisal vault,: or in general any vault: on a cireular 
plan,: whatever: its seection,: is a surface of revolution and 
is not, developable,: each portion beings. curved. in both plan 
and: elevetion.; Cylindrical vaults have straight. generatrices 
resting on curved directrices; domical vaults have meridians 
and parallels, the meridian being circular,: elliptical,: par 
abolic,: ete.,: and the parallels are circulars; 

From this results a property peculiar to the dome, that, of 
already, being a complete vault, after each horizontal ring of 
voussoirs is celosed,: so that it, may be stopped at. any height, 
desired by the architect, without, the need of: closing it, by a 
Final keystone,: like cylindrical vaults. 

Assume that, you are constructing a spherical stanaonaheii a 
vault, (Fig., 465).; Ten or twelve courses of voussoirs have 
been set, the last stone of the twelfth being lais to com 
plete: this course. Stop there if you wish,: even if it. be onl} 
@ third or helf of gour vault,: for you can. How could a stom 
ne of that; course be overthrown? Not, by a force S$ acting in 
the direction of the meridian, for this stone is wider at, a 
than at b;: totcinithe direction Nl normal toithe sphere,: for — 
¢ is greater than b.: Hence in a domical vault. may be left, . 
an opening at top of any dimensions preferred,.: We shall rem 
turn to this construction,; | 

The domical vault, is then frequently lighted: from the bop 
by a circular lantern,: and also sometines by. penetrations; ; 

Permit; some advice regarding glazed lanterns,: taking as a 
starting point the Pantheon of Rome,:a circular fall covered 
by a spherical vault with an opening at, the top,: through 
which rain and birds enter.; 

With us this would scarcely be. permitted,: and the opening 
would certainly become a glazed lantern.: Hhat. happens then? 
While it rains in the: interior of the Pantheon of Rome «= 
when it. rains =sin that. other Pantheon with slazed lantern ig 
drips in the finest. weather.: Whether there be a great gather: 
ins of persons in the. monument or water vapor rising toward 


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281 
the lantern «=» which is inevitable: «- the water vapor is con 
densed on the cold glass and falls in rain,: which is nothing 
else than condensed vapor.; | 

Then it is necessary to separate the lantern from the hall 
by a warmed space,: which cannot, be the external air,: and - 
hence the necessity for interposing attics between our vaults 
and the atmosphere. < | 

Do not lightly accept, the criticism sometimes made: on grea 
domes, : S.; Peter,: Val~de~Grace,: Pantheon,: etc.,: whose external 
outline. does not, reproduce the internal section. I believe — 
that, this difference most; frequently results from a desire c 
the architect, for effect and outline.: But. whether: or not. inw 
tended, there is the other reason of equality of temperature. 
necessary to prevent chilling and condensation.: Under anoth- 
er form,: this is a reproduction of the arrangement of churches 
es with vaults and attics over the vaultse: | : 

Nothing particular is to be said on the decoration of cir- 
cular vaults,: Their regularity lends itself to ornamentation — 
by ecoffers,: by compartments,: made in the direction so that. 
the meridians are strongly accented,; A spherical vault. with 
only annular horizontal lines or parallels appears flat,: wha 
ever its section.) Further,: even the jointing of the vault, 
when properly treated, is already a decoration,: and many cir- 
cular vaults have great ornamental sobriety.: 

With the spherical and tunnel vaults may be classed the an» 
nular vault.; It does not. differ in theory from the tunnel 
vault,: and calls for no particular remark.; 

The vaults mentioned,: excepting mediaeval vaults to be tre 
ed later,: are vaults with uniforn thrust.) Here again I. must. 
insist on the classification of vaults in two great, families, 
those with uniform,: and those with concentrated thrustse; } 
This is of capital importanee, in the study of plans,: forthe 
architect, cannot arrange his plan before deciding on the kin 
of vaults to be employed; only thus can he attain that, perfec 
tion of: design,: avoiding dimensions of points of support,: eis 
ther useless or inefficient.; 


Assume abhall or rather a gallery to be covered by a tunne 
vault and intersected at. right angles by a similar gallery 
and vault with the same width »‘ Spring lines and section.; The 


intersection of the two vaults produces the cross vault, wel 
| 


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(Fig.: 468).; They will be long or short. »: accompanied or not. by 


282 
characterized by its groins,: convex if not projecting, in a 
solid angle ingreasing from 90° at, the spring to 180° at, the 
Crowne: 

The cross vault; here assumed is the perfect. one on a square 
plan (Fig.; 466),- 

It. may be on a rectangular plan,: one of the galleries being 
wider than the other,: but then the sections differ.; They may 
have the same heishts with different; widths,: so that, if the: 
narrower. be semicircular,: the wider will be elliptical (Figy: 
467) ~~ not. an oval with several centres =~ for the eurves ) 
the groins must, remain in vertiesl planes;. this: grein curve 
can only be. an ellipse,: consequently belongs to an elliptiea 
cylinder,: and this condition determines the section of one 
vault. after the first, is fixed.; Draw it. and you may verify 
this statement. | 

Finally,: if the dimensions of the two galleries are quite 
different,: it, will frequently be. necessary to renounce: the 
cross vault,: which would require one of the vaults to be 
raised too much,: and would produce: too great, differences bem 
tween the eourses,.; fe then have penetrations.; | 

Sueh are the original elements of the cross vault. It, has: 
many other: applications,: and indeed you find it. but. rarely al 
the intersection of two galleries -- in the transept: eof: ai 
ehurch for example == while you will daily find a series in a 
portico.; : 

But, if I present it first,: this is: not. without. nackte ! 
which is to show you,: that it results: from the intersection 
of two tunnel vaults at. right. angles,: and: also that; this 
vault; calls for points of support; in a diagonal arrangement, 


cross arches A,: but, it. is only important that the sroin of 
the vault, be continued by an angle of the pier.: This will on 
ly be in the top of an entablature,: if you have a column uh= 
der the spring,: but. this impost. is necessary for the effect, 
and nothing is more irrational and disagreeable than eross 
vaults that commence or spring from nothing,: as sonetines o¢ 
curs ( B, His, 468),; | ) 
Phig: while a cloister vault, requires concave angles in its 
piers and beneath its intersections,: the cross vault require 
Convex ansgles., Both for the same reason,: that, the concave or 


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Sonatina 
a, eA Se leet 
i AAbaPL ae. Pole te ers 
S yal po tt) > 


oo caeiaeiba. <5 sent sanugios oiiseb soy of 


Pail Gains'sats }8)} cenavios soy a0 303 .4yeee at 
a¢iq edd aenooed yLibess aa ig wits bas /daldomtotyg 
ees esas eaiseaqese> of3 yfao ,A tata edd Fo 
Sk ei bite iovad Y68 atiney ecoua iS sdeoqut at 
: a os cae Rou.dniog o a4 (Pld BPR). & ged 
209 ty, ‘5-6 sedate #015. agtors ond ated 
fovedd sand achiz aasit cet so ov 
ban tse eit» ed bisoda Jt 22 besieqque 
Pp abaaeoe at 


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ies: ond Ne eivseddegya Iditinl ano mot? abiad 
duit of S3tisd aiingy. zecis ets yde ,gabsoogiasal 


it Aadanids efi ctetdnoores 67 10 .yallead edt das _ 
: J yigkanenia ta aro bog TEAR: ad eyeule Jesn 


‘died 


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pi asl HoThsnitivaey diuav aso sis setzis ont 


ao -istsyver od was ered. yd wadivey ator ys berg 
@ isoddiw even elgnts @ eeedignes Worsdo edz %h. 


cs 53 ya Ping! 
‘A 


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a as Yo. aly od « oN pada tats. aie 


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CHis Ss ewor has malg egods -fdt4 to Lsahadsed odd ight 
° a. pEdT (woltous sence wi. ecg ie cpaene 


285 

convex effect. of the vault; may continue in the vertical piers 

Assume the plan of a gallery with a series of cross. vaults 
(Fig.; 469),; The projecting piers Rf correspond to external 
buttresses; between the two is a simple wall,: that, receives 
no. thrust and therefore: may remain thin.: You see mentally 
that, the groin of the vault, becomes the angle of the pier,. 
for the form continues with or: without; an imposte; 

Do you, desire cross arches? They project, beneath the welll 
end require projections D from the piers,: but, you must: take 
care,: that, your cross vaults always have a proper: impost, é 
and not; make a plan like B (Fis.: 470),: where the groin ends 
on nothing.; 

Do you desire columns instead of simple projections? This | 
is easy,: for on your columns (B( the entablature forms the f 
projection,: and your plan readily becomes the pier B instead 
of the pier A,: only the decoration being changed.: f 

The imposts of cross vaults may have very differeat. me 
bet, © (Fig.; 471). be a point, of support; of a portico; you see 
there two groins,: cross arches d d',: the imposts r r*,: one f 
two or three times wider tham the other, but, your vault, is. i 
supported as it, should be,: the entire vault. and piers being 4 
in accord,; 

These considerations are. very important: and they will be: | 
evident,: if you, mentally eonceive your plans for the part: a» 
bove them; I repeat; that in the study of a plan,: the upper. 
parts must always be present, in the mind,; 

Aside from our initial hypothesis of two galleries mutuall 
intersecta@ns,: why are cross vaults built?’ To light the vault 
and the halls,: or to concentrate. the. thrusts? A cross: vault, 3 
must; always be justified by one of these “nohi Ved siete by 
both.: 

Take a church with transept, where. occurs the meeting of 
two aisles,: the cross vault, resulting from the rsciprocal p 
etration of two tunnel vaults.} But. each aisle is itself: cov- 
ered by cross vaults.: Why? There may be: several reasonse} 

If the church comprises a single nave without side aisles, 
like the Cathedral of Albi,: whose plan is shown,: a tunnel 
vault, with its continuous thrusts and resistances would pres 
ent; ho difficulties in construction.; This: church is covered: by 
cross: vaults to permit, lighting in the height: of the vaults. 


4 


10 6 daant 8 to aii esas gt'gnode aa ¥t pabaaie gud 
to dnemegisaiaes,dedtcas +o st0? sao iebsu  nogos 
# ebeocses dina eects oid .ceitsollex 10 selata-sbte 
Seaunadginas efd Yo te3ens1¢ baa galddgil yedesa 
ek eid? “jseemendusene jon sxe awsiq oft eredw 
ivies vibehd at eee yihdivey ‘Yo 48 end. (692 
et Pipes we  qhdtanatiq 
eds aed? levteotsi etom aodd ef aa tdvol 
aueet) dfjiw edisay aeoie ysdoelorg Teoy af sommoo 
E eoaaerivide to enokisuidwos odd nedw 10 .,evobain 
tq Gai obe of -.dleav cassie edd ytivest, gon of aaate 
eas 2.49, as eht ae-bedosloxrq: jesilasv azote SHild sicei, 
eenere. aesapeacueah mvotiae te [law « yd beeolone 

“sav kiosteb 

plc tao usacas tne ‘g20%19.0d bsabad al 
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on WB 827) .aelo @fd sénimaxi (.entinedtencS Yo asifiess 
7 pair ok dasd(uece off Yo sineminie Jeers odd 
ev fonds’ dada gd badosancs eevisessié 
aa bauei2 efs wovi uniesia ensmeioo gdbte 
Mietlagk ates éainso edd +,edivev sects oii to 
deeds af ov le ateogat sf? Qaimiod asigdeidasas 
Dia: weds .,ainiaego dseta ods etinua¥ 282010 
i {fA j.edingy founud yrebsocsa odd to stood ods 
Cidibuy ; aon bas daelqute edd diitw saoisnemth {se 
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fetid to siisd edd ybode Sas” tehlence. aids vse dud 
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RIT :jgonete307 10% Lebon edt ,sebssaolos tuo of 
op cembaed di edie odd Satdastd Ki bollecat ed 

Afiw di .etinev geo1s Yo ndidarooet ‘efd tot 24 
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v3 gaks toast, wretios yi bodatooeb yitneuger? taom — 
tGmoo yisorsos aet%00 odd Jel .tiegdi sotdourd 
iS fag acim atog dat gigas: tage tedd | (ntots 
ep SA, > nebedbhuds ad daonsgnsats thedd 

meant sages viTnrenst ets etedd etlast avebhes al. 
g aviles ai (he: aaa fdoide. eoattntorg eat UG 
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284 
But further, if as shown in the plan of S.j Front: or that. of 
Noyon,: under one form or another,: enlargement of: the: nave. by" 
side aisles or galleries, the cross vault: responds to two | 
needs; lighting and transfer of the resistances to points : 
where the piers are not; encumbrances,; This is always,‘ as: you 
see,: the art, of vaulting placed in the servise of the art. of 
plannins,; | 
Nothing is then more: illogical than the arrangements too 
common in your projects; cross vaults: with tympanum without, 
windows,: or when the combinations of thicknesses in your | 
plans do not justify the eross: vault.; We see in your. pro- 
jects blind cross vaults,: projected on the plan of an aisle | 
enclosed by a wall of uniform thickness: everywhere.) Doubly 
defectives: | 
In regard to cross vaults,: their most; monumental expressiod: 
should. be: mentioned, the halls of the Roman Baths or ef the: 
Basilica of Constantine.; Examine the plan (Fis.; 472) with 
the: great: abutments of: the eesultant: of the cross vaults, : 
themselves connected by great tunnel vaults, and then the . 
eight columns rising from the ground abd bearing the imposts 
of the: cross vaults,: the centre being again raised above the 
entablatures forming the imposts; also in the tympanum of the 
cross: vaults the Sreat, openings,: that: 1ight, the: hall above 
the roofs of the. secondary tunnel vaults.; All this has colosa 
sal dimensions with the simplest. and most, judicious means of 
execution.) It. is architecture surprised in perfect composi= ; 
tion.; I regret, my inability to cite examples in this vicinity 
but. say this,: consider: and study the halls of the Baths,: for 
they are to our vaulted architecture as: the Greek orders are. 
to our colonnades,: the model for reference.; This subject. will 
be. recalled in treating the Baths in general.: 
As for the decoration of cross vaults,: it: will vary accord= 
ing to dimensions,.:; The monumental vaults of the Romans were — 
most frequently decorated by coffers: resulting from the cons: 
truction itself.; Yet. the eoffer: scarcely combined with the. 
Sroin,: that. must; remain intact.; ‘Only _ development. can 
their arrangement, be studied,; | 
In modern vaults there: are. genscabie! compartments enclosed: 
by the Sroin lines which ornament the vaults.: Finally,:« poinps 
ed vaults are here an important, element of the decoration.; 


‘ 
, 


aabad af te. tose idee oii asia od aenttiue af na 
a ; danas aged heen bas sdead Yo eoatqiotesn — 
; a Ve of Oe “ 
| ie  badovssatat nadensi® cued: ‘30 ‘ttaay & ompesa 
segment ad déis doa ob woy),sellame yldaiebtes 
Sines ed of. ddod oxiean I bag Ascisqille eldie 
rot on dudes eds asidaaseneg aedd Jluav lena 
ae ‘etiuey ga019 8 
19 educb Sivan’ ‘cae ei abibvasantn’ ta aail off 
ee wae: 040 hetede yoactls euobsasehisaoo dn8 (. (Eth cnit) 
enna iad 896 eieaidd 9AT | ‘ened oldsoliqua o1a adlusy 
Tones eee agasquyd add» jesusertiad §o-eaaeto Shae Oni 
f sation Mila winsy e493 .gdeuads dvodsin oxsolosa ere 
a. iso efd tas guys odd dhsordd ganiddgil edéfa- 
tse | +s awoio eda od edit doa seob galsdgil eidd dade 
feanad @ to tadpaseio edd saiader dotdw » diva 
ksanidnon, od. tieedi ebnel diasy adiisasdeasg off 
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@utij odd (gaitoxtasosoo bas adivey odd 
12¥00.) Sehinte ci (cvs (pid) fled tenmosadoa ah. 
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ee Visteoso adione? onss odd) aoitecdeneg 
Ab gnciinssoueg Jada .Blae od yor ti .yilisal® 
10. -eeothoutalr. aid? ~.svise easiq s-aqubotg Jiveyv 
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p24? sbeonsonory ed. Liew edd Yo cemmisvigs edd V1 
99) iutsdyob yrev si yiiliddde edt Ons bad yre¥ 
oT lasdenodd ebledvo. ylextdas ai dots sid Jo you 
d ykenersze ‘eid aguages dots edt baa .assoqdi ed? - 
ods « = ‘i “eee ed yeu selquexd .,awosdireve ‘gdied ‘to 
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408 atin es hae ea \- -pghaawdeo Ile) ef ebned. 

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oy ScamemeT ee y ya a suki cetade phone: tgateasue, 

. oe a 

jade has sone: aan ye radon tation viovigns dite sorei ¢ 


285. 
and it, suffices to cite the cross vault of Villa Madama, « a 
hasterpiece of taste and decoration,: shown previously (Fig.; 
455.).) 

Assume: a vault, of large diameter intersected: by one con- 
siderably smaller,: you, do not, wish to. make the larger sen» 
sibly elliptiecal,. and I assume both to be semicircular.) The 
small vault. then penetrates the larger,: but; no longer: forms: © 
a cross: vault.) 

The line of intersection is then one: of double curvatures, 
(Pig.; 473).; But. considerations already stated for cross: 
vaults are applicable here,.; The: thrusts: are concentrated on 
the same piers or: buttresses,: the tympanum wall is likewise ¢ 
mere. enclosure. without, thrust,: the vault; with penetration pe 
mits lighting through the tympanum,: the only difference: bein; 
that; this lighting does: not; rise to the crown of the great: 
vault, whieh retains the character: of a tunnel vaults; 

The penetrating vault; lends itself to combinations at thi 
Cloister: vault,; 

Here is a hell (Fig.; 474). covered by a ol othtors uaa 
in each quarter is a penetration permitting the lighting of 
the vaults and concentrating the thrusts on the solid angles 

An octagonal hall (Fig.; 475). is similarly covered by a 
cloister vault, and ih each of the eight, cylinders being a 
penétration,: the same results occurs; 

Pinally,: it; may be said,: that: penetrations ih a spherical — 
vault; produce a plane: curve.; This introduces: some words on _ 
arched: openings in cireular halls,: whith are often projected, 
If the curvature. of the: wall be. pronouneed,: the appearance. i: 
very bad and the stability is very doubtful (Fig., 476).; The 
key of the arch is entirely outside the straight; line joining 
the: imposts,: and the arch assumes the extrenely bad: appearan 
of being’ overthrown.; Examples may be seen in the choirs of- 
certain churches,: S,; Thomas Aquinas,. Se) Roch,: and in the: hal. 
for the sittings of the. Instiiute,.; | 

Externally this effect is that, of an overhang, perhap'’s les: 
disagreeable,: but, not. less dangerous,: for this entire: arch 
tends: to fall Outward.) 

It: is entirely different. with the arch of penetration in a 
Spherical vault,: where the intersection is a semicircle and 
@ plane,: with entirely satisfactory appearance and stability 


ad patybu | non noltoatszo> desi edt f[Inoes [lene of 
Sara é one F. weevitaobaeg ao 

1g 8 bastion 104 08 Pakesarsenes bas e¢losv eae 
(Oi igsoe ei ddgied reteet® yitaeupes? 464 .leotibat iyo 
a (T j.320 Yine 10 eesnee fidod at t94dis ,snvtiarsonog 
UE fo dinsy edd edif 1Sbisl 2 saseitoneg Jivst 101 
tis aden: (SE gids. .selvetioinse ots atsbaifyo diod 
eg dens o2 iscidgifie sbam ed texted o84 
te ase goy det: «tisay eeoto ancido sa et Ji ,le 
“ova bas .dfvev dose ict actives islyottotines edd 
equate simon said to WOTD as? 7 rancid? SkEOTS 


fe. ee 
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| tn nt ead “to awore eid de dastaed od been 


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a7 io gbodatoq od. Oivevy shtal ods: eeetas 
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: cone ‘bra swoto rat ds iadaoeitod onied» Seve © 


we ‘sanigainge 
VIGO atdaob Aste ibis andthe fo geoatsga ovedT . 
X, on ae posh epimiodes of divot?ib ytev eemtd 


iad wads isdier [siad yd hesiiver sadte 
eke 9iin*- wonk od ¥saeaeoea at if ybode 
a bas pidtescg sis doidw sae a3 , eoostise 

ash 1: ,se80 spt ef al alsotdtoerg 
eas ye aes an | ee bash: ve (aetolio? 


286 

We shall recall the last: combination when studying the vau 
on pendentives,) 

Cross vaults and penetrations so far: mentioned are purely © 
cylindrical.; But, frequently greater height is sought. for the 
penetrations, either in both senses or only one.; Thus a smal. 
ler vault. penetrates a larger, like: the vault. of a ehurch,: I 
Both cylinders are semicircular,: this is a penetration,: if 
the karger be made elliptical so that the erowns are on a le 
el,: it, is an oblong cross veult.; Yet. you ean still retain 
the semicircular section for each vault: and have complete 
Cross vaults,: if’ the crown of the small vault: is raised: from 
ato b by the difference of the radii; Then the. large vault, 
remains cylindrical, but not, the smaller (Fig.; 477).; 

It. ean neither be conical nor conoidal,: for its directrix 
must be tangent; at, the: crown of the large vault,: and a gener: 
atrix of a cone or: conoid: would be tangent lower; then ap«# 
pears an inclined penetration (Fis.; 478) entering further in 
to the large vault, than cylindrical penetration,: and: which ii 
@ conoid in the figure,: but, not. the raised cross vault. sough 
unless the large vault, be pointed,: having as directrix two 
axes,: such that the top generatrix of the cone or conoid may 
be tangent at, the crown (Fig.: 479),: and: the groins will not. 
be: plane. curves.) | “-@ 

In any @ase,: the small vault must, be a surface with its: mil 
dle section tangent: at the erown of the large cylinder,: and — 
that, can be cut in a semicircle by the small eylinder,, If 
the large vault, be cylindrical,: this section is necessarily 
curved,: being horizontal at. the: crown and: inclined at, the: 
Sprinsins.; 

These surfaces of penetration with double curvature are sc 
times very difficult. to determine geometrically,: and they ar 
often realized by trial rather than by method. Yet. for their 
study it is necessary to know fully the generatrix of these 
surfaces,: to see which are possible and select. the most. — 
practical.; In the present, case, I describe this surface as 
follows,.; 3 we 

To obtain a eurve C ¢ (Fig. 480) tangent at the crown C,. 

. wcxig vet tM ALT. oa 
pass through the crown C,: permitting a semicircular section 
for each cylinder, and consequently elliptical, disgonalaye 
I first; find that, this curve of intersection will be a Half 


cee lg | ; 
fineness to eastise off sonad  segilfe™ 
) seoative ‘Ife i eodta bus | actévioveat io biorgtiic 
Nreahltl i: biadanertel 818 eqchices naibivew Ile -,a0id 
me Sulntee Dog adtdose enss od asig at eved {lin 
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aifye sds°%0 esnti dnial odd whovy add fe: “palbdosarvedat 
rome 0 #esel te botintesed aunt Saied eosties edt 
peda wond ton Ob voy Ti eltdw. batbade sd at et 
meeree bat? | anelees vii 2t boane ‘Agioee ‘Yo ‘acitietoass 
) neds “bade 
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avis dad j.gs0 e’qddeid e heated vt tivav 2e0%0 
sivey ej 101 ‘sidextaeb yey asdto dated Yo eons 
fog Ji) oosatas to ytote a woled ei divsv edd aedw 
4 10 -baol Sad Goilcidiniv esd? bus eidemiisqaoo saa * 
— aed mervbeoarg samee rine trey a neds gi JI 


av. oa 40 aoLtensney fesiasencey end 
es? | “.dwond 
bor: “eid lo sudisoatore [a daoxf4od adi: 
gadiusy B20 faciainifyo edd sot ss 
bs Ree B00 sebats suGitey So ed y¥sa tive 
ey adic ee A gexediev wae wdkeyt 


| itis. Rimes ated ul ots istoyait ore vLiser 
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obiror era duaddaw (fod to oftae badafog 
a. scudidoatotg Isatuco sf¢ lo sa8a 
v eid Yo sisag wot 6% ‘To dose abi? | 
syerats Iscijasv gnidoaxib aite Bronco 
Mgewo l:-sidé se @lotfo tees a Yievidosgs 
ong fadnox trod silane ‘@aT (sandaeo od3 te 


oie beadsat Ylno (élwev eeotve Iscivhat 

ie o% phos eos eg youd s,fedsextqod | 
gid? -,lolduqoleve donk? begter kai, 
pet Sines Ss Sapte 


ho Asn. Isotidashf todd 938 seni! jaket. 


=» eross: vault. is termed a bishop" S$ Cape} That. gives an appear=_ 
© anee: of height; often very desirable for the. veult, (and also. 


287 
ellipse,: hence the surface of penetration will be part, of: an 
ellipsoid of revolution,: and sinee in all surfaces of revolu 
tion,: all meridian sections are identical,: this ellipsoid: 
will have in plan the same section p © e,; 7 

The joint, lines will then be meridians of that; ellipsoid,: 
intersectins: at the groin the joint, lines of: the cylinder.) — 
The surface being thus determined, at, least. you know what,” 
is to be studied,: while if: you do not. know the geometrical 
Seneration of vaults: used,‘ you will find yourselves unable: t 
study theme: ; 
These raised vaults: also occur on a square phan;: when this 


when the vault: is below a story or terpace,: it, permits: thih- 
ner. compartments and thus diminishes the load on the vault.) 
It; is then a very judicious procedure,: but makes the study © 
and. construction of the vault, more difficult; in all cases,: 
the geometrical generation of the vault: used must; be well 
knowne, q 

The: horizontal projections of the groins: will be the same 
as for the cylindrical cross vault.; The surfaces of the 
vault; may be of various kinds; one: may employ cones of: revo- 
lution with vertexes S' outside of the vault. and at at the leve 
of the springing (Fig; 481).: The groins are then elliptical 
ares intersecting at. the crown at: an angle more: or less larg 
really the diagonal are is here pointed elliptical.) But. you, 
note that the upper generatrix. of the cone being tangent. at: 
the crown of the diagonal intersections,;: these must. make a 
pointed angle or arch,. wathout, which would: occur the former 
case of the conical projection.; . 

Thus each of the four; parts: of the vault; may consist. of a 
conoid with directing vertiesl plane, whose sections are rem 
spectively a semicircle at the lower part and a half ellipse 
at, the: centre.) The entire horizontal projection,: éroins and: 
joint, lines are then identical with the projection of the ey 
indrical cross vault; only instead of the joint. lines being 
horizontal,: they are more and more inelaned,: the surface. be- 
ing warped (not. developable).: This system then presents sreé¢ 
difficulties,: and in making the complete sketch,: you see. thi 
iit, is impossible to have: everywhere plane joints between vot 


e 


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if iho dao iyi ode wend st gat sutal oAT s@ttoe. 
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ts i 


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elfen 


\ ve 


288 
soirs.; The jointing is then very difficult. and is nev= 
er perfect,; | 

These combinations have this in common,;: that; the line of 
the: crowns is a straight; ascending line,: which gives a dry 
appearance to the vault,); It. is generally preferred that; thi 
line be curved, as we have: seen in penetrations.; 

Generally the curves of the groins are first, fixed,: then 
the ridge: curve,: when the rest, of the surface is found by : 
trial.; But, it, is: always best, to employ well defined surfaces 
by having recourse to general combinations.; 

Easiest, conceived is the intersection of two. ellipsoids of 
revolution (Fig.; 482); but; the ellipses of the base being 
fixed,: the: height; of the créwn results necessarily,: for this 
height; above the plane of the: base will be precisely equal 
the half-minor: axis of the ellipse: of the baste} 4 

Thus. the vaults cannot; be raised. much.) Their section will 
be identical with the curve of the ellipse: on the plan,: whie 
Gan never much exceed the inscribed squares; To obtain a high 
er vault,: a first; means: is to employ portions: of ellipsoids,: 
(Figs; 483). Assume that, the horizontal line A B C. belongs to 
a half ellipse,: whose major axis: is: C 0,: and. the. curve will 
be more open in plan and section,: only as shown for. cones, 
the diagonal arch will be pointed ellipsoidal.; I add: that, 
the variable solid angle along the groin is necessarily quit 
obtuse.) j 

Finally,:a sort: of torus may be formed (Fig.; 484),: though 
not; properly ealled a torus,: by passing through the crowns 
¢,:¢ an arc of the circumference of the circle ec C ¢ with a 
radius: such that its centre falls: lower than the plane of th 
springinss.; If from various points of the circle of the tymp 
num A ¢,: notably from points of intersection of the jointing 
lines,: we. pass circles traced with this: point, P as pole,:a & 
face. of revolution is obtained,: whose oblique section Ate w 
be a semicirele,: and its right; section will be a curve only 
to be determined by points.) If we construct, another similar 
surface perpendicular to the first: and entirely reciprocal,: 
these two surfaces will intersect in the line A G. A, the pr 
jection of two elliptical half groins: in the general CASCe) 
Tn a particular case: ib: might, be. fixed at. first, that, this — 
groin would be a semicirele,: and then the height of the. cro} 


hd feio3aib of2 Yo cides efi ni. asfotio based ofa 
4st rere, beiisieg edj ‘lo slog etd hae ataspe aed 
iaqe edd Jo onal indnosised eff Yo Slesdl- es 
mae edd ‘to .d969. & eenooed ssoutine seedd Jo tinge. 
saa Seopa ae “notdocareiai as segm0l on sh evede 
Bek Asaogeik & to. agiijoelorq eis nadd stom guiddon 
eo 0 dinev odd Dat? yileudos ew bos .,ssedge add Yo 
or wie Bond gt dotdw bas .,ylissoss heaoidnes 
ree Eq | _ 4 tya@idoentedai Be 
= febt Eife edd | dtc dwoexe 2o..wety Yo dafog es. wot 
2 a wetkesitn> eda aainavbe siiatesinconi a eat 
yede0b aan asibinen eied eve baw gaiinicl to ssail oft 
. elderiass ysev eyseria,ssomtive enalq Iscton gat 
a ¢ Yo moisenidnoe aedigi odd ni efidws atlosy 
: enathixes. gon bus felisieg galled esalt dnie{t ead 
bas aie ai ghaoitiis. eto. leainos-sd [fim esos tine 
! MOE, ‘pad aiisey jo Said Leyalgque: vietat & 


aie. ae 


r wits ¢ a (Se%s qalvtesioo#@ a omgeeh -.eniod~tase 
ebis 8 ediven Ba0%0. agiionedoes 2 Yd Osete 
eno sells edd we Liew. ees,salvoitoines.ed Ifin 
| ene eldvob to soe tive odT (. (C8 (B28) 


ghnGok elotio ilese etd to Joemeost quit jeils 
a Att) dove. cod beriey disse s benigide od 
sebadoogxe Gooite odd eouborg dou yidiedses 
eda dainuzes ‘shatwoilot ‘etd-at meidarg ofT 
(ot od ~euxod edi of oonotetas dials @upiide 


v ’ 


Fee as, Mamios Bidd Yo adiives \idgin edd od Hlvow - 


dens boedd elaupe cixs soften esodw > weugille ss ed od 
a edd nos gonstaik ods elaupe sixes sonia a4) bse 


a or, al, 
athe, e > 
, : ie J 


Ides eléene’ ake r@ deus eb beosss of jiwey edd) Io gonasseque 
% a Spies; semplsace earcvensas o63- qd ness: X13 
- ah a tos odd todd» soot, geAaas:.. eh at 


FP BE yee eee 7: = 


ike asagted, edd @4 acisiogorq ni pated) ,bexi? 22 


fmt welnane eJiney eis onatT .gnkibeserg | 


yee . Mehe ae SA. BB 9 8 boe ane Lg remy 04). a. 
ida inde se ae os: boruses yiénoeaatte es don dod gape 


© (88 cept). eioxte asibives edd as 2644600 a 
se at. yliess. emsdvasa fasdapoo. to sontase _ 
ists eidaitev yiinsienco » eved binow paibeo. 


289 
is fixed,: being in proportion to the heights of the crowns of 
the head eireles in the ratio of the diagonal to the: side of: 
the square,end the pole of the parallel circles is the cent 
re itself of the horizontal plane: of: the springings,; But; then 
each of these surfaces becomes a part; of the: same: sphere, and 
there. is no longer: an intersection.: The ellipse ACG Ais _ 
nothing more than the projection of a diagonal great; cirele — 
of the sphere,: and. we actually find the vault on pendentives 
mentioned: recently,: and which is thus: the limit: of this kind 
of intersection,: 

From the point; of view of execution, . the ellipsoidal vault,” 
has an incontestable. advantase;. the generating lines. are also 
the lines: of jointing and are here: meridian curves,: determin= 
ing normal plane: surfaces,: always very desirable in jointed. 
vaults,: while in the latter: combination of semimtorus surface 
the: joint lines: being parallel and not: meridians,: the normal — 
surfaces will be conical,: more difficult, in execution,: 2 

A rarely employed kind: of: vaults has. some analosy to the: 
preceding.: These: are vaults annular in elevation,: torus or: 
semi-torus., Assume a ectansgular area in plan like that, cov= 
ered by a rectangular cross vault.; The. wide faces A A',, BB! 
Will be semicireular,: as well as. the smaller ones A B,: A' B! © 
(Fig.; 485.).; The. surface of: double curvature indicated by A 
B Oyu B' in plan and B ¢ C$ B' S' in elevation may he a to 
rus,: but. not, as erroneously assumed to be by admitting a parm 
allel displacement. of the small circle AcB,. for: by this would 
be obtained a vault. raised too much (Pis,: 486), ‘Which would 
certainly not, produce: the. effect; expected.; 

The problem is: the following; assuming the section A e B,: 
obliguse with reference to the torus,: to be 4 eirsle,: what. 
would be the right, section of this torus?: It; is bbs is be 
to be an ellipse,: whose major axis equale the diameter A B, 
and its minor axis equals the distance from the eircle. of the 
centres to the meridian circle (Pig.: 487).; Thus is: obtained. 
surface of constant, curvature,: easily jointed,: while the orem 
ceding would have a constantly variable right. section,: The 
appearance of the vault, so traced is much presocantte eas 
ily seen by the. transverse: sections,: | 

It: is further clear,: that, the torus vault. always having its 
Springinsgs tangent. to a vertical, ‘should be received. and. 


is sae 
iene ti as py al to nob ioeiorg eds Yo ppenese 

; fasen od ti iby Pe rastve eras letvdoodidorws ech 
5 cere BEd - {B29 
keg = te dgondsie ere) ielinte Wixeow a .in3 
620 meidosqueds yelise wisys Ysm | ididssenes 
as dour eos tine fetiasewosg cdi ed bivods tsdw 
at dk doceredai avieg at leilereg eonalg Les 
i ws beniside ef aedif -yetedice s yldvebive ai 
i vitwiat ‘hag » (03S 4§fT) soeties benitsk wi 
= ae ee at gi sgisorio eticcesov LsJnox<idod of 
ths Ye mentt sachin eens ig {sotdaev Ilelisiee 
-~eoidevetle at 
ae Ye dines ead wi allat natétenidwes aisdT 
wtieécibeamt benisexs ed od 
— ed gon tenw adivev esedd dads odod- 
> exivee ead jo iled gaidisw eds gi UOY Cd awonk 
Serena ‘to aes jo seta eH Luseecaain to 68 


SFO GGT ad inev Sayit S18 ssa  daietacatett 
see oh > yeedote, deaah ai beaveosst elisu | 
som sid “tc ane at eevitnebasg wo siney 680 

| =H leldarg edd tof jesudoadidere ai enacts 
spi s vd bevevoo od ¢ vines sieht 


Helene? oe gizonvtion ta ni ates Getcqnece i wld 
beg eft eiiqne nanod.edd Yo bee eds beewot 
pipis Kevosl~ooe18 ai bsoubotdai asec eved of atess 
adenc oe gitige® 46 sen eved Jedi» mwotiwevai elijvei A 
0 bias 18 bre anegyived ‘To Jnotl (2) eotse¥ to Wiek (68 - 
dot: 3 log aud @ldetinbs ci eids Ife Jed3 sont ot 
sends opoaredts quod’ te se fos -wod efi -word 
ger ee > a Ytdenoss od 
fe agora: cuen). tinev evidnpbace esug ofT 
A pmaenh nee ‘to fancgath edd, ai sedeusth eacdw © 
@ioftiues ei di bass,eee soy ee» _efqnie 
de padtscenvo ed ed sssereluuotio s sane 
25,87 evens, te: fanoseib edd ef vedsomnib, 
| feotredqe sé ‘S86 seed eft obem et ecnete? 
Ig fsebdsow 619, ifed edd ‘Ye 
eles caesar ei sae'y = selene 


290: 
stopped by the projection of an archivolt. of the cross arch; 
its: architectural representation will then be aia that, of 
Fis,; 488,; 

But. a ee similar vault, although of a very different: 
generation,: may again satisfy the problem if proposed thus: 
what, should be the geometrical surface such that, four verti= 
cal planes parallel in pairs intersect it; in semicircles? It 
is evidently a sphere.: Then is obtained a vault, with a clear: 
ly defined surface. (Fig,: 489),. and it, will be jointed either. 
in horizontal voussoirs circular in plan,: or: by sections by 
parallel vertical planes sivins. lines: of- sisi circular 
in elevation,: 

fhis combination falls in the series of peadentive vaults 
to. be examined imnediatelys 

Note that. these vaults must. not. be Souteupecte ae those. 
known to you in the waiting hall of the assize court, of Pal= 
ace of Justice,: composed of parts of vaults of double curvas 
ture and of flat section not: enclosing’ the cross arches: but 
independent.; These are light. vaults supported by masonry 
‘walls recessed in great. arches.; 

The vault, on pendentives is one of: the most. beautiful inves 
tions in architecture,: for the problem was singular; siven a 
Square hall to be: covered by a spherical vault. Antigue _arch- 
ibecture: did: not: propose that. question,: ab; least. so far as IL 
know,: excepting only in the monuments of: Persia.; | 

Toward the end of the: Roman empire. the pendentive vault, ap- 
pears to have been introduced in GrecomRoman architectures: 

A fertile invention,: that: gave: us S,- : Sophia of Constantinopl 
Se) Mark of Venice,: S.; Front. of- Perisneux and S.: Peter: of Rome 

You know that. all this is admirable,: but, perhaps you do not 
know the how and why of thess admirable. thinss.; Let: us returr 
to geometry.; 

The pure pendentive vault, (Fis.: 490) is a spherical vault, : 
whose diameter is the diagonal of the square Sorste dey ery 
simple,: as: you. see,. and ib, is sufficient to invent it.: Asm 
sume a circumference to be circumscribed. about. a evuneatinelll 
diameter is the diagonal of the Square,: and that this circum. 
ference is made the base of a spherical vault; the four walls 
of the hall are. vertical planes and. intersect, the sphere in 
cireles,: the hemisphere in semicircles.; This is the whole of 


| ceo ig xt : ee. 
. i cuabiobatiee: agiq Gi dipse evisnebteg ‘end. 
Sreadka) eid Ye elorto deeth @ od Jdin acistes 
orend SVisdoobneg, ef4 decd ,Jertt edo 
tpe: ent d-asd dt dads evii isinew esoud ohd of Pets 
| oh 7 ets eitaunsa? eviwoxil di jelied Yo ynisayli odd 
: inge, Loaner ‘eit YLdcevpwence fine: ,esen%09 etd. 
ig = aso) ,diney @eet0 |idoefil..éiuev evisnebaoe edt 
g! Fale oo Yeaned dilnu ecelais ows lo soidosasetn! 
3 ade a Fqoteid, e863 Qnidemiazotgqos exad . ptdiied ve 
Ro < Sk a s,eedess azote diwo jonusw ti dads exif 
like nade ‘pee? patie ene ented of nego ote 
Be ‘stivay beaie% 
id ae cite: anaes HO Pee eviénebnes AT 
a) Sivew tacksodes aditol gatgnixgs a aantiosl Yo 
liso et piligaizge aidd gudT -(iCd. gil. notiove 
a odd vad? re(SOh -4RiF} ysloa weni tie notisa « Vd 
crue ae seeds geonded isncoteib-sads vedensih gol 
it gislveiio od yllandos bivseis eve lee 
Sidesehianos «i débiv views ney pall 
; ae at jiSisres ed. ysiqa oft Ti s.2ade. 
= sis inetio esnoved dis,seig # io-dsag od 
18 8B Mivedd Yo solsioetotg odd. itivev and ‘Jo 
“eid Yo anct sore bar s@ig od? :,(hCt .gft? walé 
aon a tien see ae FP es he aaarg 
ee 1 dTpey Iacinedda. ‘edd jadé beddde even i seb 
ig Fhesudno @b dl ‘sesestse0o teinine adi Yo sno yas Js 
fo vasa 4a.e0 you eidt -.diveyv evivcobnoy St? a0. 
a ae <880 edo Leones - eee oad. jenna gnys eid od 
yak Ane are conceal Yo! daert: 6 as spay 


= dias 


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i, i! 
. 
’ , v 


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a not ceemuneonys edd oo Jtebaad slorto edd de 

ace aud sesncttaa oBidd HO edba2 éivev Leal 
By: ai fs gf isy. eee: hy a tS g as qqu STEGBS 
k Phbdges soci. to ysilidiaaca REST <2. 

cae wos gabddatl Bhe shatsogo télaodte 
We ted jroddvat dann yous HB ‘yeaket 
Witiye siti oven cand salabric m ee 


al 


291 
the pendentive vault. in plan and. sections: D¥agaasli gee 
section will be a sreat, cirele of: the: spheres: 

Note first, (that, the pendentive vault, has numerous ahalo-« 
Sies to. the cross vault;-like that. it, has tympanums suited f 
the lighting of halls; it; likewise transmits the: thrusts to. 
the corners,: and consequently the tyapanum can be Opened; . | 
the pendentive. vault,: like the ¢ress vault,: can be made the | 
intersection of two aisles with tunnel vaults.; It. has great 
er height,: thus approximating the bishop's cap vault,: and 
like that,: it wannot; omit. cross arches,: when the. tympanuns 
are. open, to define the transition from the tunnel to ceane 
raised vault.; . 

The pendentive: vault, on a square plan has the inconvenience 
of lacking a springing for the spherical vault, (See. diagonal - 
section,: Fig.: 491).: Thus this springing is generally ensured 
by a narrow oblique splay (Fig.; 492).; Phen the sphere has 
for diameter the diagonal between these splays,: and: these 
splays should actually be cireular,: . | 

hus when their width is considerable,: as: in domes: of chur 
ches, if the splay be straight in plan while merely playing 
the part; of a pier,: it. becomes cirsular above the springing 
of the vault; the projection of the impost. masks this transi- 
tion (Fig.; 493).: Fhe plan and sections of: bhe hall are exe 
pressed in Fig.: 494,; : 

But, I have stated that. the spherical vault misht be stopped 
at; any one of its: annular courses,.: It. is naturally the. same. — 
for the. pendentive: vault.; This may be at, the circle taagouts 
to the tympanums,. the first: complete one.” 

Hence at S.: Front. of Perigueux (Fis.: 495). is: 2 very singu= 
lar procedure.: To ensure the vault, the greatest thickness re« 
quired at the springings,: the pendentive vault, is interruptec 
at. the circle tansent. to the tympanums.; Then a purely sphers 
ical vault; rests on this,: double on the fonnenh: aaa in the 
entire upper parte: : 

This possibility of interruption then permits hortheuttl 
circular: openings and lighting froma above,.as at. the Made~ — 
leine.: But. they went. farthery: for on that, interruption taken 
asa circular base were built cylindrical walls,: pierced. by 
windows,: themselves covered: by spherical vaults.; This: is. the. 
System of the great. domes: of churches,.: S.; Peter of Rome,: Sq: i 


Pty 


a Pe Pe Sew oy! em igers 
P 


ae hii J A ASN ee 
4 r rhe er 2h | 


ee a ee ee 


oetidn siees « Fada: oatiroven? aah e0s10-9b~[6¥ ) wobsod Yo foe: 
Leas ree Jai i -eonetos adneesicey igdd noftopsiance biok 
3 it yletwe sit eothiexe «davones ndet eid? odes of 
4) qi isncpei6 ao Bdneminon seeds te eso to swaroe 
agit) acta sxe Teruioedidets elynia yiev adi has 
di [g Yo @AGiow ertins add edtoqgua sissy evi dnebasg 
De cea eng gnisietesesd > dinev factiéedge efi te 
“yd qind ;.adenrds eidereilanne of beseuss amid 
ausne od eosnsisivest ddetoittse nso nalg odd a 
aes efdevismet Viev sta beito deni aedneminonm to 
w yeehileval eid Yo Jjadd sxeidc Lis eicted sqedteq 
de ext wi evidsebaeg ef d 09 sall{woeg aditizoques 
a neve ad shainiehesial ene To-eesd sit ward erodoedifoss 
pra fies ‘gewob eit To 
o Eisiiosltanetseg ett eeouuorey Jain eee vol 
$ Gitotq of wok nwond aed etusoedidoss dadd bee 
dfoas ae > weds qhute .jeelgnaxe oldetinds bedfo 
rent Aeeoqetq et esoeldve teiden 
% ss ‘four jediusv Isivege od exaq | | 
@ aeicnses \.etivev tstvans wetos ‘ee tfih: 
Syne d 3 eateloxe’ bas sent teh yRodoetvade 
eee es tis gddiweeods » <wckdteoqmoo to weiv 
, 8 Dera cevevatais aidt -sbodingooes vitess e318 . 
, ytdenost edd act (yvseecoca #i fi’ dod’ Cs0iatem 
joE age sy. od Ratisiw ong yd avond od of antdd dati? odd 
3 “5a ana dave edd to “Yeodosteds eemoo soft 
Pet Gate ovlt ylvo I jeediise1s Isiosge of bettelet es 
| rs sate ‘"uOY Batdosrib efinw: aditgieoqueo of YIse 
oth tanec al cai Taio Ne qise iftw voy pybuds eiad 
vipa kN “~3i af pestrqnoe 
Lediecatey Seren 6 taoge of enon I 
id dedd woud ybsouls wel “Ho%eqs need yoeetle | 
odeiedea & VW hadvoqqds einem disqres | 
apes pe’ gkuods =~ bles ed Jigin dg] .edht 
je ded cet inae desséence dot Hib eke eibBiw eds .. 
yencnei sie 
ad deer 1 Ubesouos 94d Scspnamaeld 


ae 


292 
Paul of London,: Val-de»Grace,: the Invalides and the: Pantheon 
Bold eonstruction that. represents: science,; | 

To take this into account,: examine. the purely Seometrical 
scheme. of one of these monuments cut; diasonally (Fig.; 496). 
and its very simple architectural expression (Fig.: 497),: The 
pendentive vault: supports: the entire: weight; of the drum and 
of the: spherical vault,: transferring the stress to the piers, 
thus exposed to considerable thrusts.; Only by combinations — 
in the plan can sufficient resistances be ensured; the plang 
of monuments just. cited. are: very remarkable and: instruetives 
perhaps before. all others: that, of the Invalides,: where the 
Composition peculiar to the pendentive is translated into th 
archibecture from the: base of the edifice to even the summit. 
of the dome.; 

You, see what resources the pendentive vault: has: created, : 
and that. architecture has known how to. profit: by it.; I have. 
Cited admirable examples; study then,: for architecture: has no 
nobler subjects to proposes; . 
’T pass: to special vaulis,: such as Praapant, tunnel vaults,: S. 
Silles'. serew,: annular. vaults,« annular cross: vaults,. ete. 
Stereotomy defines and explains them,: and from the point. of 


. view of composition, those: with uniforn or: concentrated thrus 


are easily recognized. This explanation is: quite dry and geo- 


A) mebrical,« bat. it, is necessary,: for the Seouetry of vaults is 
_ the first; thing to be. known by one wishing to vault, edifices: 


then comes stereotomy,. or. the art, of jointing,: for. which you | 
are referred to special treatises; fT only give. what, is neces- 
Sary to composition,: while directing your: entire attention to 
this: study; you will only acquire it, by making the drawings — 
comprised: in it.,: 

I eome to speak of mediaeval vaults,:on which a word has 
already been spoken.: You already know that: these vaults have. 
compartments supported by a skeleton essentially composed of 
ribs. It, might, be said,: =. though an exaggeration = that: , 
the middle ages did not. construct; vaults,: but. only ribs and 
compartment s.; ; i 

These ribs generally fest on compound piers,: and sometimes 
on simple: corbels,: : 

The combination of these vaults are much varied,: yet. they 
are rarely applied. to tunnel or cloister vaults; the trans- 


oy ape 


; fis a pial EN Mr sameeren iy uth ene Sheemegm 
=a ai +3 a] ~ ‘hee < ] os Ue Ret , : Na ae 
moat ‘ilies | 
| edisset iewins diy odai Jiusv edi to baivau<et 


oi. ira 


tine einiog alaiveo ia eecnsisives Yo dnendalldsiee 
Be etom 60) et sedeye eicd yedis eds Yo gakgatson 
Mo dads od meds adecrds heJarineotioo Jo yioend 
ery medias: ded?  feteses nit yae dagin ono sonst 
eran sine Pee ene cetuten.tisese enpsensmed “to 
es > teadapidd bedandaeo 
Wey cakathon®. decane oud joiniesx ow Tt 
Gots -0 jeenaned ofd bas belay bedalog edd io adluav 
oak ence e@éitsv Io wdice ond ese ow onid Jadd ad gu 
| etednes atedteo e at divav teluoticiacs ads yee 
By stone © esidnsryé at diusy avidsebres 6d ,sodcruio 
<a Sosa qeeinast 4 To dpowddwo? bas fivoe eda 
F id So tritsifasel of i. yd eifvay svidneineg ent 
 sebiod Boe. beidey siom foun asdorwuic Io snaig 
he Baledgtl Setded done awolls eale jai ,ilyuey 
ihless ofS» igilvav feanvds sid. tninobasds aot 
6g and te eclibndea eviseasous od savior 
igacgeih yt evisncbasg ens hastotetex af! 
x S45 diz Ai eaciuicertib fae sexinco Jones 
Se itisacis @i dene 102 -~ snoliienss3 ovis 
as See ieeice <3 fhedosst-yetd -~ achistove oi . 
Shee tees kexane en e¢ waseqgs eidl «i loev adi 
- coisa homme Jc topabahe eg a 6 aedoisseet ofTis 
ts ‘alenupidiod etudoed 
isves thea toads schen’ sit snigique atitae eit: 
had fs Bheurg ded evetiod sco ob IT jheeiat syewls eve 
sett “fo. eeodd ett! .,dneiors dsom edi fons ,daixe senso. 
a cornet deom ams :,isvad to iso (O0G feb. Ben 
pote siunacad oe ates naers edd buat 


a i tre a te 


si sei al Rai Tac mtlanebews ae sik: anne 
SD hedorsienoo eiew eéias? 
Ls gas do ei fivev vend Yo nelq etatoe edi sadd:.e1ec eton 
tes eae fens edi. ievéd ews Yo ndivenicucs sad 
vader , Beets 4 eon gated eilaw efie eff ad seivetinsg 
exsue8. 61 noi, | edd Wedd | eadatJenomob gists 

6 #i divev evitnebaeg edd acd bealinp 
ae vist eyed odd Yo mie? te Lene soo 
. bobas jeche olbbla eff oi soaaoe 


ee flies 5 


293 . 
formation of the vault: into ribs naturally results from the: 
establishment; of resistances at; certain points only,: at; the 
springing of the ribs; this systea is thea more suited to th 
theory of concentrated thrusts: than to that: of uniform thrus 
Henee one might, say in general,: that, after: the tunnel vaults 
of Romanesque architecture,: mediaeval vaults always have: con 
centrated thrusts:: | 
{f we. restrict, the expression "mediaeval vaults" to the 
vaults: of the: pointed period and. the Romanesque: architecture, 
up to that, time. we see two sorts of vaults employed in churs 
es; the semicircular vault. in a certain number: of: Romanesque 
ehurches,: the pendentive: vault: in Byzantine churches,: and in 
the: South and: Southwest, of France.; : . 
The pendentive vaults by the localizing of thrusts,: permit 
olans: of churches much more varied and bolder: than the tunne 
vault; it, also allows much better lighting’ of the eentre ais! 
Then abandoning the tunnel vault,: the: architects: devoted: the 
selves to successive studies of the pendentive: vault;. they 
first, reinforced the. pendentive. by diagonal arches,: actual p 
manent, centres and directrices in stone,: and then by sueces= 
Sive transitions «~ for such is always the course of attist~ 
ic evolution ~~ they reached the. conception ealled hexapart~ 
ite vault.: This: appears to me proved. perfectly by. the. scisn= 
tific researches of M.; Corroyer: (Architecture Romane; Archi« 
tecture Gothigue),; | 
This origin explains the fagt,: that; the mediaeval vaults: 
are: always raiseds;. I. do nob; believe that. purely cylindrical 
ones exist,: and the most ancient,: like those: of Angers (Figs 
498, 499,: 500). or of Laval,: are most, curved, their: sections 
through the crown being precisely that. of a spherical vault, 
on pendentives,; These ancient: vaults. are: further: on Square: 
plans,: like the pendentive vault,: and: it. was later: that. 
vaults were constructed on reetansular. plans,Only you will @ 
note here,: that, the square plan of the vault, is: obtained by 
the combination of two bays,: the arch through the erown per= 
pendicular to the side walls being really a cross: arch,: This 
again demonstrates,: that; the: tradition of the. square plan re 
quired for the pendentive vault is continued in spite of the 
rectansular: form of the bays.: This: arrangement. is further — 
common in the middle ages,: and is found notably at. Notre Dein 


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294 

of Paris;; : 

I mention these questions of origin only to show you that; 
the mediaeval vault, does not. really belong to any species of 
Vault, previously examined,: and I reserve: to the study of | 
church architecture the esthetic questions comprised in this 
subject; this is not, a eross vault,: or: a spherical vault on 
pendentives,: but. a combination of ribs of very precise curve 
ature with compartments of much less: determinate generation, 
Sometimes very awkward.: Once these ribs: are drawn and. proper. 
ly erected,: the compartments were: a slight, affair of inspira 
tion on the spot,: the: ribs alone serving fete eatae 
and: patberns,, 

The mediaeval vault. has: for prototype: the hexpartite vault, 
@ combination of six ribs playing the same. part. in pairs (Fix 
501).; If the: plan be drawn at. the springing,: one first; notes: 
the be vatienke es ribs connecting opposite piers,: and then the 
Side ribs: attached to the side walls.; The transverse ribs 
are thrown from one wall to the other,: forming supports for: 
the compartments,: the side: ribs: being applied against; the ex 
ternal wall,: thus forming a curved projection to also. receive 
the compattments,; These: ribs are all semicircular: in Roman= 
esque architecture and are: pointed in Gothic architecture,- j 
Finally, there are diagonal ribs,: also termed groin ribayic 
that, form the sgroins.: These: are generally elliptical and are. 
traced so that their crown dominates those of the. transverse 
ribs,: while frequently the crowns of the side ribs ara higher 
than the central crown,: so as to favor the penetration of: 
light: as mueh as vossible,.; 

These different, ribs are: of- cut. stone,: jointed carefully; 
the compartments are of rubble and sometines of bricks; 
UThis is: the very Simple vault. of the middle ages,: but, it; is: 
often more complicated,: 

First. the transverse: ribs are frequently accompanied by t me 
side ribs and the crowns are. frequently marked by ribs; trans 
verse ribs D,: side: ribs F,: F,: groin or: diagonal ribs Hi 
ribsC. ¢ (Fig,: 502),: oh oh 4 

Particularly i the larger vaults are ribs multiplied and 
with reason,.; The entire stability of these vaults is in the | 
tibs;. the compartments have: no stability of theaselves.; The 
architect should then avoid too lepge. compartments,: just, as 


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295. 4 
he: should avoid a multiplicity of encumbering ribs.; But. the: 
ribs are always in vertical planes and: are plane Curvess} 

These combinations of ribs,: because perfectly appropriate. 
to projecting intersections like groin vaults,: are less suit 
ed for: concave intersectinns:;: Thus: the middle ages: scarcely” 
employed the cloister vault, and even for polygonal halls{Fi 
503) the vaults still rest, on the ribs and are conbined with 
the tympanum,: being still eross vaults.; 

In general,. as I have shown,: to a particular composition 
the vault corresponds an analogous composition of the pier.: 
Yet these arches also frequently spring from corbels,: and n 
tably when the Sroin rib springs from a coneave angle of the 
pier.; : 

{ cannot. enter into all the detail of these vaults,: whose 
combinations are infinitely varied,: but, ean only refer: to 
Special works,: where you will see that: architecture has a= 
Sain followed there the usual procedure of the fuman mind,; 
After exterminating,: it, has reached the logieal and: necess= 
ary expression of its work,: and then has sought, boldness and 
variety,: then producing elegant and ingenious combinations ¢t 
charm us; it has also accomplished. feats by seeking diffiscul 
ies for: the pleasure of solving them.) Attaining this,: an art 
has fulfilled its evolution and has no other alternative: be- 
fore it; than decadence or renovation.; The Renaissance was. not 
merely a fact,: but. an inevitable. necessity.’ : 

The Soc eiW enuew did not at once abandon the vaults of the. 
middle ages,: but impressed its stamp on thea,. gave them the 
imprint, of its taste and elegance,: and also in the order: of 
ideas it built masterpieces,: even if only the baults of §,- } 
Hustache,: or those of the: chapel of the Chateau of Boouens) 
(Fis; 504).; There: were even very ingenious and artistie com= 
Steet tere 6 ribs and of ceilings of stone slabs.; One of the 
most. remarkable examples is the vault. of the Church of Tille 
ieres (Fig.; 505).; 

Phen the system of vaults completely disappeared and only © 
the stereopetric vault, was: constructed; everything contribu. 
ted to that, the inspiration of antiquity -«- in its forn WOE 
than its construction —» especially the violent. rupture of 
the modern spirit, with the mediaeval spirit, an intellectual 
break,: that could not occur without, an artistic rupture also 


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296 . 
to such a degree that even recently the: art; of the middle. 
ages,: so profound,: skilful and: finally so refined,: was regar 
ed as the barbarie expression of what Quatremere de. Quiney 
called ignotant: building; 

I do not, have to state my personal preferences, : but: I thii 
that, nothing is to be rejected,: and that. everything transmit 
ted to us by our art. merits study,: on condition of: understan 
ing it, well and knowing its seope.} 

I have sought. to exhibit, the profound differences existing 
between the different vaults,: and at the same time the unity 
of these studies.: The vault, is always a contest with danger, 

The vault is @ magnificent, element,.a seductive temptation 
and the mind always leads to the vault, when if, is necessary 
to express the monumental,: grandeur of appearanece,: nobility 
of the edifice.: But, to triumph over: the difficulties: of the 
vault, and its perils requires art, and science.; The vault is 
difficult, architecture, only permitted to the strong; its — 
study being composed of prudence and still more of foresight 
from its beginning,from the composition of the plan,: you, en 
sure the possibility of your vaults,: while remembering that | 
the means will never he too sinple.: 

I shall congratulate myself if these lectures on vaults © 
have shown you in them a motive for very serious and thor= — 
ough studies; that the vault, is not: a mere pretext, for dec= 
orations,: caprices and fancies; that. the architect. who con 
ceives vaults must. know what; he does,: understand the geomet» 
rical generation of the surfaces employed,: and foresee what, 
resistances must, appose: their forces.: | 

The vault is a superb element,: and you will fashion it af 
ter. your own ideas,: yet. you enter as ih a contest; be not; — 
vanquished! 


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: 297 
CHAPTHR XI. STAIRWAYS.: 
SUMMARY,: == Straight and curved stairs.: -— Their elemen 
~~ Stairs: between walls.) -— Height, and width of steps.j == Ex. 
ternal flights of steps.) -~ Landings.; «- Lightins of stair — 
WaySe) =~ Stairs of stone == wood = mixeds) 
Steps with landings and overhangs.; =— Gentle rampse; 


Until now,: you have examined the wall and its openinss,: pig 
columns,, orders: and porticos,: all of which are vertical; roof 
floors and vaults,:all of which are horizontal,.: Between all 
these is the vertical conncetion by the stairway.; i 

Little will be said now,: reserving till later the study of 
the stairway as a special composition and as an enclosure, « 
only treating it, here as an element,; 

Is it. not: useless to explain to you. steps: landings, : ete. ?) 
All that. may be in stone, : wood or iron; likewise: the railings 
I prefer rather to indicate the relations of the combination 
of stairways to the general composition,,; 

Stairways in all antiguity,: in the entire middle ages,: pro» 
cecd: from the same: system of: steps like: lintels,: either rest- 
ing on rampant. tunnel. vaults,: between two walls,: or between — 
-@ wall and. a solid central newell,: when the stairway is cury- 
ede; In Latin or Italian a single word "scala" signifies. both 
ladder -and stairway,: because the stairway was at. first, nere~ 
ly a stone stair,: even in the richest: palaces,: as the stairs 
of Henry II at the Louvre,: in Palace Farnese, in Palace: Doge 
of Venice,: which does not prevent these stairs from being ’ 
magnificent. , , 

The principle of construction is the sane for the stairway. 
of Blois. and. that, of Chambord,: or for those. of: Caprarola. and 
of Palace Barberini,: and. finally for the. grand. stairways in 
three: flights,« like. that of) Caserta,. the. steps. everywhere. for 
ing. a lintel: between two: walls or between a wall: and a. newel 

The were invented, —— I cannot. state. where. or. when. they 
first oceurred: «=. what. are. called. self»supporting stairs: with 
Strings of. stone,: wood or: ron.) Such. are. the. so-called. French 
stairways.) I. should. enter: too’ directly into stereotomy,. if 
I sought. to describe. them.) Their common character. is,: that; 
the steps are: fixed. at, one. end ini the: wall of. the: enclosure,« 
at, the other: being supported over space by: the: strings.) These 


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298 
stairs always: have a railing: (stone,: wood or iron). on: the: fre 
Side: ; 

Further, straight or eurved,: with newells or strings,:the © 
stairways require: the: same- considerations: from the point. of 
view of the compositions, 4 

They must. be easy,: the proportion of width of steps equal : 
to twice their height being frequently adopted.) This may be ~ 
said to be a minimun,: for the stairways of our: monuments, such 
as: those, of the Louvre,: of Versailles,:+ ete,,: being mueh easié 

Here is a Table,: that will indicate the proportions of widt 
and height: of: steps of: some: celebrated: stairways.: 


Table: A.) 
Edifices: Width of Heisht. of Rise per. 
treads) riser,., ft.) runs) 
-Louvre,: stairs of: Henry II 14.6%! 5.5" 4.6" 
Louvre,: stairs of: colonnade 15.8 5.8 5.25. 
Versailles,: marble: stairway -415.8>. 559. 4,2 
Invalides,: grand stairways 15.0: 4.7 4,2 
Palace: Royal, stairs of honor 15.3-15.0 5.7-575 3.05. 
Conservatory of Arts et 
Trades,: stairway 16, 5. 5s 0-2 ae 
Pal.; Luxemburs, stairs of senate 14.6 5.9 ° s 4,85. 
Pal.) Lux.; stairs: of president. 14,6 53 4.4 
Mint. 13.0. 5.3 5.6 


These examples suffice to show that. in monumental architec= 
ture very gentle stairways have been sought,.; In more ordinas 
ry conditions,: stairs are more: or: less steep,: the: usual pro~ 
portion being to make the width of the stepa twice their 
heisht,: or 6 ihs.; rise per foot; run of the stairs on the plan 
sometimes,: as in stairs in’towers,:the inclinations reach al= 
most, 45°., This is done when necessary and cannot be otherwis: 
but these stairs are difficult and dangerous.) 

It is the same for eellar stairs,: frequently: made much too 
steep,: and yet they are intended for heavily loaded men.; 

Italian stairways,: notably at. Rome,: are in: general more: 
easy than ours,: one scarcely perceiving the ascent.; Those: les 
ing to the terrace roofs of S.; Peter at; Rome allow passage o 
mules: carrying materials for repairs,: which ascend and descen 
without; accident.: Some examples have been collected: in the 
next, Table,; 


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299 


Table B,; 
Internal stairs, Italian edifices,; 
hdifice.) Width of Height; of Rise per — 
treads: riser.) ft.) rane: 
Rome,: Palace Cancellaria 15.8" 6.5." 4.Q" ° 
Rone,‘ Palace Giraud. 17.4: 5.95. 4.4 
Rome, Palace Doria Pamfili’ 15.6 527 4.4: 
Rome, Palace Farnese,: exit, 23.2 5.2. 2.7 
Rome,: Palace: Farnese,: ordinary Zien. 5A 53.0: 
Rome,: Palace Borghese 16.4 525 4.0: 
Rome,« Palace: Barberini,:« rectang,.; 18.2 5.2. 5.45, 
Rome, Palace. Barberini,: oval 18.8 4,95. Delf 
Rome: Palace: Corsini 16.9 5.2 367 
Rome,: Palace: Braschi. 14.8 5.6 Ase 
Rome,: Palace Vatican 15.9 . 4.7 35.65. 
Rome,: Museum Vatican 14.6 4.5, eS ae 
Venice,: Palace Doge, géoldenstairs 12.7 6.7 6.3 
Venice,: Palace Doge giants’. 
stairs 11.8 5.7 5.8 


External flights of steps should be,: and often are more ea- 
Sy-, Steepness would be more dangerous there because the rain 
wets the stepa,: and all that. makes them slippery,: frost,. | 
snow or: mud.; The treads: must. also be inclined te remove. wate: 

Some examples will be useful and are siven in the Table,: 


Table C,, 
External Plishts of Steps.: 
Edifice,; Width of Height. of Rise per 
treade: riser,, Lbe) PUNS) 
Versailles,: the hundred steps: 15.8" 5 ab” 4,Qm 
Versailles,: horseshoe steps. 15.8 5.8 4,4: 
Versailles,: central steps,: Serd- 
en 14.9 6.5... eae 
Versailles side steps 14.9 5.3 4.5. 
Fontainebleau, court of honor,: 
straight. 16.3 ALG mm Hed 529. 
Fontainebleau,: " curved steps 14.2 4.15, 5.5. 
Fontainebleau,: court: of fount.e; 17.3 543 Se 
Fontainebleau,: in park 14.9 5.9 4.75. 
Pal.; Justice,: court; of honor 16.4 5.4 369 
5.9 4.3 


Pal.: Justice,: Place du Harlay - 15,4 


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| “300 
Table ©.; Continued,; 


Hdifice.: Width of Height. of Rise: pe 
tread.) riser.; ft.) rui 
Conservatory, Art. et: Trades, : : 
court. of honor , ag ce 6.3 5.9. 
Tuileries, to terrace Solferino 14.6 4.9 4.1 


I. prefer to cite those easily seen at, any time.; These prow 
portions are also very near. those found everywhere,: but alwe 
more easy in Italy.; 

As for: stairs with very broad steps, they rather belede wit 
easy ramps.) Thus at, Versailles,: the horseshoe stepa: commence: 
as ordinary steps 15.8 x 5.8 ins.,: then continue with broed 
steps 47.0 x 3.9 ins.j: or a rise of 1.56 inse: per: fte} runs; 
These steps are composed of stone borders enclosing paved 
blocks 4 ins.) square. 3 

When the stairway is curved, the dimensions: of the treads — 
and risers of the steps must be applied at the middle of thei 
length, which is called the travel line,: 

Tn stairs composed. of straight, flights and: curved parts, 
abrupt transitions from one kind: of step to the other must b 
avoided.: Thus after laying off the treads on the travel line 
at the points o,: Aj: By: Gm = = Ni. 0 (Fis.; 506),: if the: risers 
were drawn normal to the string, the dotted lines would run 
to the points o,: 1,: 2,:3,;= = = 14,. 15, which would be bad, 
for: near. the string one passes suddenly from one slope to an- 
other, making it inconvenient: and dangerous.; Recourse must. t¢ 
balancing (full lines). at, 0,: a,: bj: @,om — = n,(0,: that. per=_— 
mits these differences to be Sreatly modified,: | 

When a continuous curve permits unequal curvatures,: as on 
an elliptical stairway, it. is also well to correct, irregu- 
larities by balancing.; Such is the plan of the oval stairway 
of Palace Barberini: (Figs.) 507,: 508),: whose strins is: sup~ 
ported by a rampant. colonnade,; s 

In all cases of balancing,: the proportions of the steps re- 
main unchanged on the travel lines; | 

Landings are of two kinds,: those at top and intermediate.) 
In general, one rarely ascends. more than 10: to 15 ftp; without 
@ landing,: which must be sufficiently wide to. pernit: several 
steps,: for the change of steps rests one in the ascent.} Too — 
small -a landing only breaks the step without. rect? eee 
this is disagreeable,; 


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sheedonsis saat ‘enog4s¢ [atevee eonles rosie edd 
ene venient: dads oa) ,estada sil’ baeoash 
=“ seats Phe cane Yet, ‘setdibasl edd 
tinnes saint Gibinievie al Qnibasl ged of?» 
yak. Va Bevsee sremshaniie 942 To ersten al’ 
fixe oaks sy tng Bas pioeeeugs eindiitcal taus 
sg wilh s@one ta -odal 
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8 net) ,tadiaevnoant 16 eldsoarpas te sxoa at 
doan 2 node dokdw ,yiods « to ewobalw ond yladpiide 
sie ot Lon ag edd bas Seto ofhbte ie a 


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fied? ds beiieper esiv odd of aoitest 
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ra of patria: 


PIED (.8>alonays -eolusy Shaquss xo. bedivog a? 


304 

The length of the landings must; at. least: be the length of 
the steps,: since: several persons beside each other: ascend or 
descend the stairs,: so that the same order should: be kept; o 
the landinss,: : 
The top landing is arranged to be as nearly as possible at 
the centre of the: arrangement, served: by it; every stairway 
must. facilitate Sia P RIC and: allow those: arriving to circu 
late at once, LShs3 . 
The: lighting of et ninneed is often very difficult.; Nothing 
is nore disagreeable or inconvenient,: than a stairway cubtin; 
obliguely,the windows of a story,: which then cannot, be opener 
In the middle: ages and the Renaissance,: at: the celebrated 
stairway of the Chateau of Blois (Fis.; 509),: or that, of the 
Chateau, of S.; Germains (Fis.; 510),: the windows: of the stair- 
ways are at; different, levels: or sometimes are raupant, accord 
ind: to the: ateps.; That: is: only possible in certain cases,: ant 
at best is a question of personal taste.) But: windows: thus: di 
placed injure the stability of the: edifice,: being an inter-_ 
ruption to the ties required at the level of each story.) 
All these: inconveniences are avoided when the stairway can 
be lighted from the top landing,: though not: always: permitted 
by the Seneral arrangement.) As for vertical lighting: by a 
lantern, it; is only possible for: grand stairways or if only 
one story is to be served,: for otherwise the Light, does not. 
reach the bottome; | 
Thus are many difficulties for: which are: no constant solu-— 
tions.) The. foresight; of the architect here permits the adopts 
ion of the best. arrangement. possible in each particylar ease, 

Monumental stairways are generally of stone.} In certain 
regions of France,: notably Lyonnais and Provence,: even very 
ordinary stairways are only of stone.; Naturally,: hard stone: 
is necessary,: that. wears: as little as possible.: If the stair 
way has limited dimensions,: the steps may be lintels. between 
two. walls,:or a wall and a string.; Otherwise they must be su 
ported by rampant, vaults,: tunnels,: S.; Gilles}. screw,: or half 
vaults with trumpets (Fig.; 511).; You will study these speci» 
al vaults in treatises on stereotomy.: : 
In any case joints: should not divitte the length: of: the” ‘ste 
except for external flights with widths. not: permitting mono~ 
lithic steps.) But: at; least, the: jointing must be regular.: 


oa 
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502 
Many ancient: stairways: are found with solid steps,: the sas 
stone (A b) forming the step and the ceiling beneath (Fig.; 
512),; This arrangement has a serious ineonvenience in mains — 
tenance,:( for when a step is worn out;+= which always happens 
in the end == to replace it; is a difficult: and: costly opera= 
tion.; This danger is avoided by using treads of hard stone,: 
that, may easily be changed.(Fis.: 513),: better because: the 
treads senerally have nosings,: at; least: for internal stairs, 
In case of repairs, it is only necessary to change the tread, 
whieh does not: interfere with the stability of the: construct 
lone) 
Whether the stairs are supported by one or thetother metho 
if the arrangement, of the stairs includes a central well hol: 
the steps terminate there ~~ as well as the landings =— agai 
@ strings of hard stone,: which you learn to draw in studying — 
stereotomy.) This: string in turn supports the railing,: either 
of stone or iron,: aswell as the: hand rail above it.; As in= 
dicated. for balconies, there must. be in these railings more 
stable parts,: pedestals forming the structure with*connectin 
parts.) At. the turns or angles must. be: especially sought; the 
elements of stability.; You find: here an example of a stone: — 
railing with balusters (Fig.; 514);. the variety is much great: 
er for metal railings,: from simple bars to the richest: ornan 
al panels.; One of the most, interestins models is the magnifii 
cent railing of the stairway of Palace: Royal (Fi#.; 515). in p 
ished iron and bronze,: one of the most, remarkable: works in i 
ron of the 18th eentury.; 
Stairways of wood were formerly made with solid steps,: but, 
thia practice is abandoned,: its inconveniences: being even | 
more apparent than for stone.; The steps of wooden stairs are 
made of treads: about, 2 ihs.; thiek and risers of less thickne: 
(Fig.; 516).) The under surfaces may be visible, decorated by 
nouldings,: seulptures,: etc.;,: cut; in the wood or applied,: bub. 
generally an inclined ceiling is made of plaster on laths,: — 
that receives the decoration like: an ordinary ceiling.; This 
ornamentation should always be spa et and not, comprise stron 
reliefs,} 
Wooden steps,: like those of stone, are: supported. by woode 
strings,: which are of two gortg; extending above the steps: 
after the fashion of stone strings,: they are termed: French,: 


ERE. 
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505 
and directly support; the railing of wood or iron: (Fig.; 517). 
Or they are: English,: cut, out to. receive the step,: that exe 
tends through (Fig.; 518),: when the nosing of the step is rem 
turned on the string.: | 

The construction of wooden stairs readily lends: itself to 
an arrangement, of posts at: each angle of the landings’ or: turn 
in the direction of the steps.) 1t is: then analogous to the — 
stone stairs with strings: supported: by piers or. columns,: the 
Steps actually resting on a wall at. one side and a wooden 
beam at the other.) But; these: parts: are often interrupted and: 
rather become newells serving for: the connection of the 
strings, or of the strings with the landings;: such is the 
stairway of the pavilion called Chartreux: at: Palace. Luxembur 
(Fig.; 519).) The railing is then made: in panels and may COon- 
prise the greatest; variations, either of: wood: with balusters 
or. perforated carvihgs,: or by the use of metal.) : 

Finally are stairs with iron framework with steps: formed 01 
treads of stone,: marble or wood (Fig.; 520).; The strings and 
risers are of plates connected by angles,: and a framework of: 
horses and ties forms a rampant, carriage under the: steps.) 
. The whole is lathed and plastered beneath; the strings are 
‘either French or: English.) The: arrangement: is usually the: 
Same as for wooden stairs,; . 

In all stairs with unsupported strings «« self=supporting= 
the dangerous part is always the landing of two kinds,: those 
havins the entire: width of the. stair hall (Pis.; 521), genera 
ly between stories or sometimes in the middle obit story, an 
the secondary landings,: or those for rest,.} The. former presen 
no difficulties,:a landing step being formed by a beam of- wo 
or iron fixed in both walls and forming the last step of the 
lower flight, as well as the: start; of the upper: ones; Bebween | 
the landing step and the: walls: extends: the landinsg,:« supporte 
ed by joists.; The rest; landings are less easily constructed 
(Fig.; 522).; If arranged to form a landing step, nothing prem 
vents the anfle from sagsing.; Hence a diagonal beam i's: Pixe 
ed in the two walls and crossed by another with strongly fix 
ed end, half its length overhanging, but, supporting the. 
string if strong enough not, to bend.) This artifice evidently 
cannot afford absolute security and requires perfect cons 
struction. Thus frequently such landings are seen with steps 
inclined toward the strins,which has: a bad and sussestive: ef 


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304 
fect.) But, this arrangement, of stairways may often be: necessz 
With stairways it is: proper to treat the easy ramps, which 
are rather more fatisuins to persons on foot,: who generally. 
prefer to use the stairway than the ramp,: if there be. a 
choice.) Yet it. is necessary for: carriages: and horsemen,; 
Ramps should indeed be: easy,: for: according to the programm 
they may be designed for the passage: of loaded wagons,: like. 
those in Paris descending from the quays to. the. banks;: or: ew 
in a park as at: Versailles the horseshoe ramp of the great. — 
lawns, that, serve for wheeling the boxes of orange: trees, wa 
ons with materials,: ete.j: or they may serve for light: earria 
or horsewmen.; In the forst; case their inclination should not 
exceed what; is adopted as the maximum for foads,: about. 6 per 
cent; still if the ramps: are short,: since the effort; is not. 
prolonged,: this slope: may be slightly exceeded.; It: may be a 
little greater without, ever: exceeding 8 per: cent for carriag 
or horsemen,.; This shows that, to pass from one terrace level — 
to another requires a Sgreat distance.; The plan of the ancien 
ramps of the Chateau of S.: Germains: (although intended for — 
riders and not. for carriages).is typical in that: respect, 
(Figs.) 523° 524).) When ramps are: curved,: care: should be ta~_ 
ken to slightly raise the external curve: so as to oppose 
the centrifugal force in a rapid descent.) In ramps composed 
of straight, and curved portions,: it, would be better to make: 
the latter: as landings,: so as: to arrest, the rapidity of the 
carriage at a point; where the dsecent is particularly dan= 
Serous.) At: least: it is wise. to make the inclination mueh les 
at the turns and to have recourse to balancing.) 
In the study of ramps,: if not: made: by lines of steps,: it 
should be done with lines of levels at: regular intervals of 
the height (Fig.) 525).] Thus the sketch shows you the lay-out 
of a ramp in a eurved: plan with inclination reduced at: the 
curve and forming a channel there,: so as to prevent; the: car= 
riage from being thrown against, the internal side by the: mor 
pronounced inclination of the shorter: curvature, or: against, 
the external side by the centrifugal force,: while: it, is: cons 
vex in the straight: parts.; These sketches can only be prelii 
inary,: and there is always opportunity to retouch them by. 
drawings made as large as: possible: to correct breaks,; Basy 
ramps then afford very beautiful architectural’ motives,: suet 


Pe 


Gg edd 08° ‘ge8008 ‘eda sey 7 


‘i Yledd bas ».wedé got -) | om 


mole odd wore od otteeb einerl am 
etn iite Aididxe od elds gated = 77 
idaa ‘weido yas ao Yisotsos 10? 
{,189789 seext s eved atoadi 


305. é 

as the access to the promenade of the: Pincid at Rome(Fig.; 5: 
I shall return to stairways in speaking of: the halls conta 
ing them,: and their importance in the copposition.; At. presen 
I enly desire to show the elements composing them,« without; 
being able to exhibit; all the varieties: of their: infinite fo: 
for scarcely on any other subject; can the imagination of are 
itects have a freer career,} 


= igs cf, ~- 
in 


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en 1HO8 "qe ovtainail besos “UTX 887QA80 

pyrene me mort Tish eee dion redid “ilel == (,YHA MME 

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<i. ne 


ns te Utowboow to eintlie) -— .snifieasg :.ewoh 
@iliadst o« -spolliib geiseqo bie bexi® «« 
We aa | ee a ae ' * ; 
| ‘Yovedseasle edd to sdidididue fsiscee ¢idt 
Samed agege tea Gib Tl tis eveigaosat od Bloown 
jasuftui yidiense toa ob daddy s,a04eq ytebsooss ‘edd 
ee adi ot spaces ec) ets tod» rs oi ge to aoitiacs 
bait restore ot 
eds ts Stak niet fait gi aeebi te tebiso aide al 
ab cod moy setent- I .t10whoou eidiaiy at sebsos? 
pie dyowamax? achoow ta noidisegmos edd se? vad 
Beeraciaieeas: ‘tocallaw lenvedxea t9i4dedv s based 
fost af», sidieaog as Sisdil eo wed? sas 
“efdiaiv lo sebsost fasnboiq ead stow t9d 
peqaes views dt eldereterg osm ndidonds 


Brow redHis ied fies, Leveney wi wok 
pa reaes knob (4 etaog canoer bas 


; Saetadiey ede netane etd yeinimeco edd sot 
seis @¢ benifontred jeux doidw Yo disq 1,8 ehude 
ret NS@ 1.829) notiouvdenos add adsl 

yar Slad to eigiodivq sifias sid @£ ‘alst 
ne Habba sacivetosed painiads ¢Lénesees3 oad Lie 
sig: ae gidadigady odd Ai coidaci{qus sifine eak balt 
‘ pat eognot ‘blo %o esobsos? gi as dege : betio ed yom 


bik Lukego eiea 1 yonenettoaer! Visd-sAT 
ianieas ‘“agtetiag to basoquece ovlea Fi + .m0F 
i. alana BALLItd to Sua betoeraco fms: 
) Se adiy Yo dntog edt not? sedi :,bies od yew 
i Ae sat sh au4 .~ilew détad s ai frowsmey’ moth. 
be ant nae pent edd o¢ onb. xitstooaa, Ndifidada ast 
ey vada Ed or 


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aidan fe att ag low BE EeB3S » BTITOO Tiaas ‘aE 

eat Yas Siemens bon sbersaesutesind> satnenat 
ne iad ine ee eae 


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+ (OSS Ma ET) Biaviacd-To bas (280 BF) 


406 
CHAPTER XII,; SECONDARY ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE; 
SUMMARY.) =» Half timber work.) =— Half: iron work.j == Mar. 
ble work.) == Effect: produced by color,: blocks: and facings, « 
pavements.; ~— Joinery.; -— Frames and panels.) == Doors,: win 
dows,: paneling.) =~ Ceilings of woodwork.) =~ Locksmith's work 
~~ Fixed and opening grilles.) «= Metallic: architecture; 


This general exhibition of the elements of architecture 
would be incomplete,: if I did: not. speak «=~ very briefly == of 
the secondary parts,: that do not sensibly influence the: com= 
position of an edifice,: but. are lta in its desifbn,: like 
joinery.) 

Tn this order: of eee is first found fialf timber: work,: or: 
facades in visible woodwork.; 1 refer you to works: on as 
try for the composition of wooden framework sheathed or plas 
tered,: whether: external walls or partitibons,: advising! you. to 
use them as little as possible,: in facet. never.; But, half tim= 
ber work has produced facades of visible woodwork == a con= : 
struction much preferable in every respect, with a well mark- 
ed place in architectural art,; 

Now in general,: all half timber work consists of principal. 
and secondary posts P,: stronger corner: posts,: plates S. at. the 
levels of the floors of: stories,: struts,: sills: and lintels L 
for the openings; then between the principal timbers are 
studs G,: part; of which must, be inclined to tie and triangum — 
late: the construction (Fig.; 527),; | 

This is the entire principle: of half timber: work,: and with 
all the frequently charming decorations added to it,: you. will 
find its entire application in the remarkable examples,: that 
may be cited,: such as the facades: of old houses in Orleans 
(Fig 528). and of Beauvais (Fig). 529).; | 

The half iron framework,: more useful in modern construct 
ion,: is also eomposed of principal members,: variously arrané 
and connected,: and of filling parts, Senerally of: bricks,; It, 
may be said, that, from the point of view of composition,: the 
iron th cubes 2 is a brick wall,: but; it; is a brick wall with 
its stability specially dug to the metallic members of its — 
framework, eee function is very important: in part tigeaea 
in small courts,: ete.,: as well as in structures having an’ in: 
dustrial character.) Designed with a knowledge of the req- 


eter She ee 
hae ae, ; for | 
cum apontoids s -ewolile M1) adlteusieded So ainesenke 
»t brad’ ys9" neve Fo Yraosss yA perivpet tadd asad 
ee jon 40 +» Bico wi JI juS igebeol aldsretiesos Wa 
paosdi ets edt of betfwe elisif ec Boxiayovay od seen 
io seo S18 Hi adstoosh of Getqued pi ono II .eekade) 
higaeciahl Yo dnensgiaris Osikupes eda dike eaoh 
wioosh nisv al. Sas ,edivegt -sasty duodiiw .eis 
pat? GOT edi to eu -wild- worl Rnidiuzer ywosoe 
Petistvegadsog bas 14¢oano ls astsediiias « yliees 
mitgemce ai. ‘$l (sadtdodst aaddo es #i wos} etiagp 
vitae giffietem s ai etwdei ef3 To s1stestiftorzs 
Solocved ow: one ns ad¢ to ste fF Jadd egos 
eters - | | twhebas dey d6q al avin 
jiktae od tebt0 Fadigot on @f weives Biaet sid ai 
f ead aeonh c.taow olden od yidoouih aana 1 one 
s toute Ssow eldise: sSacautess! etd to anciledl 
l Wt mew 4s: au déit -.ewstoedideis xi ¢iaq Jana 
hondty? boa selfiweray <VIX stued Yo eke odd ai 
i Bay ies )tesidten to aesidisaaua gidssebke 
pla To-#isenals owd eczasasog sofi duov aldas® 
feurde Isdtiononor yoo 104 j,1cloo brs 
‘yltesn to ies bic oJ 4otasn. asve 


1, OR 


Ay 4 oe oan 


Pate: % jes or Si 
7 a s - 


wagon 0) cote tonite. yas od iain PBN oad 
is fou seddo edi fins nonoitae? ef3 ;jestreq ed 
Bedde »janei2 Yo addeieq.: 2zalqmed asuor Jdset): yetlo 
Ie sdatog iets wot} Hiea od a3 ei Qaidte® j,.o¢d8  jn8 
ied hae eyswiisds alesites:eolfisare? de meit 
: fe» isisxetes feta 2 wi dotdw »tisan ottdw 
: aa a! Wilser ai god ,egniSlvom.tedit so syosg laos 
ieteating to oldwea neswisd eonevetiib easi at doad 
tapos doa bas hss toendsd wsid - otodéa boed 
dnote 17 ib od tug & sounade efdysn ods otek 
bidy viedtittst oa? “voles us, di joptic aii nede 
dots wore 48 yee a0 ted .nwond flow ai eeldsem. te 
Ll aeem hootertebay ered 0d of st” 
ENS. @idsgen 16 bercloo ,senots Saad fle yaots 
ole one se Samenae don eve tlivetaedo: isda” 
saa yeetndos d Béxdleo %e weiv Jo sniog alas - 
ES TESS Oe cae tor 
am 20 f H aogatee’ eer ssn ES wea ond oF 


° 


307 
uirements of eonstruction,: it: allows a thickness much less 
than that required by masonry of even very hard stone,: to. cs 
ry considerable loads,; But; it; is cold: -= or: hot =- and ik, 
must, be recognized as little suited to the architecture: of: 
faeades.) If one is tempted to decorate it,: this ean only be. 
done with the required arrangement; of verticals and horizent: 
als,« without great; results, and in vain decoration is: lost: t) 
economy resulting from the use of the iron framework.; It, is 
really a utilitarian element,: and perhaps it is wise to rem 
quire from it no other function.) It; is sometimes said that th 
architecture of the future is a metallic architecture,: but; I 
hope that the era of the facades,: that we have learned to ad- 
mire,: is not; yet; ended. 

In this rapid review is no logical order to be followed, : 
and I pass directly to marble. work.) Among. the. Romans and the 
Italians of the Reneissance,: marble work pleyed a very impor: 
tant; part. in architecture.) With us,: it: was: in greatest favor. 
in the age of Louis XIV; Versailles and Trianon employed: cons 
siderable quantities: of marble,; | 

Marble work then possesses two elements of richness,: form ; 
and: color.; For many monumental structures of antiguity,: and 
even nearer to as,: white: or nearly white: marble is: merely a | 
hard and fine stone,: admirably adapted to sculpture,: chosen — 
because: preferred to any other stone for monuments desired to 
be perfect; the Parthenon and the other monuments of: the: Acro 
olis,: great, Roman temples,: palaces of Siena,:« Cathedral of Mil, 
an,( etc.) Nothing is to be said from this point: of view.) 
Then at Versailles,: certain stairways and: balustrades are of: 
white marble,: which is a rich material,: an opportunity for — 
sculpture or finer mouldings,: but in reality for the archi- 
tect. is less: difference: between marble of uniform color and 
hard stone,: than between hard and soft stone.: 

Where the marble assumes a quite different character is 
when its effect is by color.; The infinitely varied coloring 
of marbles: is well known.) Let: us say at. once,: that by marble 
is to. be here understood,: without: adhering to mineral compos: 
tion,: all hard stones,: colored or: capable of polish; granites 
that chemically are not marbles,: are marbles for use] From — 
this point: of view of colored architecture, marbles correspo! 
to two uses,: in bloeks and facings.) With blocks are: con» 


“fl Decikeounskstaneias: tigeeban Speer bestoutse 
eer Bredmom Permeenetcens 104 se idism hedolos 
oe ,enrehdaedd 

of Fito at nitede eketos 4 qoiet Levensh se ah 
Y Ledncauson s gatvsd erpdgluos ie #aaiblver aoe ing 
fored ifiw-aledigss bas vezed of. cbeasotoo 8 ci entd 
sre ls etd qectaroe hae evevitdota 2a flow s2>,0ldvss 
Std | eofed e al meidosm besvolos to ed esa vests? 
d téodaziad. sad » Sidusa edidw-to ed {fiw sedile bas 
sets en Si gould’ ptiaee duottin tex¢o«=—-dpet 9d9- to 04 bas 
ea iets tg reetun joiaida a noid 

se iatg ee Paes 0 -flalg- sgnnei sere Yo adidesthye tedtona 
atin geldish batsidit¢eyv » fadaenunca Jaou eis aeid 
we Sa Jo Ileme go @entigen 1Ci eidadise gaied aiserd 
Hedw enamel add déin aseromya oiee s506e60i00 
ésey ci-ssicer> eldten etidu Yo 10 Sedxli gon o+ew 
> pare’ sane bee evael “Jo signe) ,aoetsnad). seer 
ot re Heh Te eiqnel eft 209 30 ,(yadd asia? Yo 
sro" Baise stitliegéd. fejsesmsato suey 5. to 
Dagens edd otacdo ton ob antsy obasf encdr 

Sas (aes ‘ebosi ylswsa viev sidxsm heroied 

Eton eh nonin toot ylfissesesen Jsomia et Ff 
e eid don ef dl.uaisoioo setup to efdtam at to 
d yetndginos edd to toa te ofd-e01sial iad? 

& aueds wit gdoetied ec 2: sindqivoe ant .sdidbey ‘ea 
7 pe ari feel: $1.32 wdsidw. eds ai-es dosld wisiqreds <6 
mad 0? bedives: ,eidvex Isisenento yssv 6 1, cup hoa 

: s dosid Yo. paaabies dnaldiy add qd fdaigo ond to 
in dav isas So-8to0it so sodkdodw yenriosl Te) ea 
feticw eas rcs ‘~yuddioey dpsth ai. ehan uaod ovad 
en evidetonel ediczew. yi dedi .éashive xed 
as. Eakovond ‘of2 fi anisgat oigasxe ne ;xsme% afd 
al 4 tend »gbise 98 det 41. 4N0E. 088 ee it} soed¢ 
Pf da yesutosdiders edi doeges+ deum cofts tres 
- “aaees. GF AGigeeoo ovsil soset ilasiie i di jobbsas 

a. (Aasborsed eds. Yo websen? odd o4 betiogs aeld 
-sipises edd eyevis et Ji yeonetoll Yo elt 
| ogi seof s).eeldsem odd ni Viskaey 

Free sldnae abe ifs ove bked: Ob don. dedoned on. 
$7 apsanoetk peeenors Py 


i, 


308 
structed: columns, pedestals,: balustrades,: ete.; the: use of : 
colored marbles for architectural members eequires some in= 
dications,} 
As a general rule, of colored marble is not; made what comm 
prises mouldings or sculpture having a monumental function; — 
thus in a colonnade,: the: bases and capitals will be of white. 
marble, as well as architrave: and: cornice; the shafts and: the 
frieze may be of colored marble.) In a balustrade,: the rail 
and plinth will be of white marble,: the balusters in colored. 
and so of the rest:-— yet, without making this: general indica. 
tion a strict: rule; 
Another sugsestion of experiences. plain or nearly plain mat 
bles are most. monumental, variegated marbles with viblent: com 
trasts being suitable for caprices or small objects.) Great, | 
colonnades were numerous with the Romans; when their shafts 
were not, fluted or of white. marble,: Sranite is: particularly — 
seen (Pantheon,: Temple of: Venus and Rome,« Temple: of- the: Forun 
of Trajan, etc.),. or for the Temple of Antonine and Faustina, 
of a very ornamental Cipolline. marble,: literally "onion skin! 
Whose large veins: do not; change the: character: of: uniformity.; 
Colored marble very rarely lends its aid to. soulpture,« for 
it is almost necessarily lost,: unless: in very strons relief 
or in marble of quiet coloring.) It is: not. the: effect, of colm 
or,: that. injures the effect, of the sculpture, but the: acciden 
al veining.) The sculpture is as perfect ih the: red antigue — 
or. the: plain black as: in the: white;. it; is: lost, in the black 
antique,: a very ornamental marble,: unsuited: to the delicacy © 
of the chisel by the: vibdlent: contrasts of black and: white.) 
As for facings,: whether on floors or. against; walls,« many 
have been made in great variety.: On the walls has already 
been evident,: that: iy was the decorative method employed by — 
the Romans;- an example remains in the interior of: the Pan» 
theon (Figs.; 530,.277).; It is- to be: said, that; this 6g , 
mentation must; respect, the architecture,: accent: and not, con» 
tradict; it; I shall later. have occasion to speak of the mare 
bles applied to the facades of the Cathedral and: the Campan= 
ile of Florence; it; is: always: the: antighe tradition with les: 
variety in the marbles,:a less: important: matter,: that: one is 
tempted not to believe;. all the marble: work of these: facades 
of Florence: with such rich effect,: is: made with but, three. ma: 


eldsas held Weedk oben vad iaditasd. eeabia * 
De duol oft umgy Ud besdul, ed deo colqiexe ood 
8 ae AES HIT) Ceigek de Kidda :.2 dowudd 244 ,emo8 
se ¥ is aera jeQte > total nevil ed 03 4itaes) To 
fise Iwitiueed Yo asfonaxe ose woy yen acaarT dl 
sd } teomom obs #oxrt .yswiiats eldten edd ot xls 
2 meds edstdeat L- od #eeleay od Dieow gb» medi 
i i ‘yfiseeesoen gdiscd twodiew 2 dows nt aotds 
p edt: )eoiseom Ineione ofd batt o# 1yet90!% 101 
220 Atel 168 Yo» em08 Je doeme ld 4.8 Yo daavkoveg 
IT {.2t0013 betid to -eattes aselias edd oadi Sra 
tons eosborg jon .e00b nealdven odd. ¥o esondei4 
se Yi > daugtele «i dnewevas beralos A -.r9d08 
ve8te dignaase fsinemvdon je¢dneaiisdaco at Ne 
8 daote din. Aiectegais met iaa ‘to ,dveesveo od 
Bie Saat Oe fsnods fiat Jo ote 
} Beak berneect aya lak din é@idres > yilenit 
) elt bensed NPCha prs 6: ‘6 108 8 _ybeyolgus 
partir? stot Aton eldasm taidtat ¢i dead? 
8 9. afaqooxige eda fo .ee }osudooTigay ai 
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ihre inpe to brid a 163: perrdoesidoxrs al 
tsk ase8 one to a0 odd : jsote + jesiginueg +,e%8 
dod Fgont ond bedtoxexe gliatosgae at oedT . whats 
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das Me option <~o odue edi <i elaqusze efdadannesy 4 
3 pa (SEG 28F*) somod de odnemeld 
qs eede @efLdten to esosa td ‘Yeitd Utev Zia? 
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oint odd di toadigats od? yo beajised od save 
sa du tapaPaebaaa Vqqed a soubor af erndoedide, 
peneeiae euoutons bag: ) ssoretnad Yiev ed ered 
dats Hidetirogarvedh 1ehset giae ddim - 
a? c.ael a ee ts: an asedd éuodiiv ivtedeed, “tev 
| oe vee sedd io digte 620! d¢0 denn doed 
“ig 59.99. and xa Beldisa Jdsds> bbe qileaid ol, 
Loo vied seem gidcisp idaeet $s bas ao ile | 
a os udin ~- ¥s9 of sonin od blver 
D0 g8Res gah ai a0 ston tas ne Lessin 


xs 50 eT 


Sang > 


309 
Modern Italians have made great; use of marble in sgeneral.; 
Some examples can be judged by you; the Tomb of S,; Theresa a 
Rome,: the: Church S,; Martin at; Naples (Figs.; 531),: the: stairwa 
of Caserta to be: siven later,: ete.) Especially at Versailles: 
in France may you. see examples of beautiful marble work,: not 
ably in the: marble stairway.} From the moment: that; you see 
them,: it; would be useless to illustrate: them,: every represen 
ation in such @ matter being necessarily quite insuffieient,: 

For floors,: we find the ancient mosaics,: the celebrated 
pavement; of S.; Clement, at. Rome,: of S.} Mark,: of Palermo, etcs: 
and then the: endless series: of tiled floors.; There again the 
richness of the marbles does: not produce the monumental char 
acter.) A colored pavement; is elegant,: if: arranged ingenious= 
ly in conpartments;: monumental strength will rather be: found 

he pavement; of uniform color,: with great: slabs: of marble 
or of hard stone,} 

Finally,: marble with inlays inserted in the stone has been 
employed,: a sort. of marquetry termed: Florentine mosaic,; Al- 
though is: rather marble work for: furniture,: it is: also. dope 
in architecture, as on the episcopal or abbatial throne in 
Church. S.; Domenico at Naples (Fis.; 532).: 

In architecture,: for a kind of: equipnent,: fireplaces, ‘alt« 
ars,( pulpits,: etc.,: the use of marble work is infinitely va 
ried.) Then is especially exercised the imagination and some= 
times caprice; also frequently elevated monumental expression 
A remarkable example is the ambo or pulpit: of the Basilica § 
Clemente at Rome (Fis.: 533).; 

This very brief: history of: marble: work comprises: 2 single | 
theory; colored marbles are: used: for color: effects,: and thes 
must. be designed by the architect. in the interest: of his ar# 
chitecture to produce a happy renderings.) But: nonsense would 
here be very dangerous,: and enormous expenses for marble: wor 
might onlycrender insupportable what mibht perhaps have been 
very tasteful without these. unfortunate aanbhes4a archi= 
tect must, not, lose sight of the architecture; Yaa 4 

I. finally add,: that. marbles in the open air are not; durabl 
with us and at, least. quickly lose their: coloring.) Perhaps: it 
would be wiser to say == with regret =~ that. this kind ef ¢ 
coration is not: made fer us.) In any case,: the more: resistant 


marbles. must; be: selected,:« not. forgetting that one works for. 
ial 


a -* aha ee tudrd 3g trd TY 

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| id .ewokake bas sso0b Ydiasdtiibs To tuieols ads 
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wha dead Yoebts Goa ob I 463 —dte: Ganert s. 7! 
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t eldavon She oni: ne rate tatog ina itogwt 9h 
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bxede — yi fenens’ Biode aiediods Bas 
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510: 


very brief future, 

Joinery pleys a very great: part; in architecture,: ensuring 
the elosing of edifices by doors: and windows,: blinds and 
shutters, also supplies them with paneling,,; : : 

{. eannot: write: a treatise on joinery,: but; only remind you 
that its design must; contend with the inevitably inereasing © 
scarcity of wood.; In general,: simple or: rich,: if not: glazed, 
joinery consists of frames and panels.) This is true of: doors 
shutters,: paneling and furniture.) The frame is usually treats 
ed simply,: and the panels receive all the richness in decora: 
tion,: that: you assume for them.) 

Simple or ornamented,: the panel must; be allowed: its natura: 
shrinkage without; splitting or: tearins the frame,: the latter’ 
allowing the panel to move with some: freedom,; This is by mea 
of the grooving (Fig.; 534).; Assume a paneled wainseot to be: 
decorated by projecting mouldings,: sculptures, et¢.4: grooved 
into the frame.) If it; shrinks, the distance a a' increases.) 
But; if the groove be sufficiently deep, the: panel will not 1 
leave. it,: and at the same time being free to shrink,« it: will 
not split as it would if fixed immovably to the. frame,; Thus — 
never indicate it. as at. A in Fis.) 535,: for when the: panel sh 
shrinks,: a very objectionable: opening is left,} | 

That is nearly all,: that: ean be said ih general; now for 
its application.) I believe the art, of joinery to be especials 
ly a Freneh art,: for: I) do not. think that elsewhere may be 4 
found works equal to the joinery of the Cathedral of: Beauvai 
at: Anet: (preserved: at School of Fine Arts). or Ecouen,: the 
chamber: of Henry II at the Louvre,: the doors of: S.; Maclou, at’ 
Rouen (Fis.; 536),: or at: a later epoch the old doors of the — 
Sorbonne: (Fis.) 537), and: such admirable work of Versailles — 
and of many other edifices,; I’ can neither cite all nor show 
all that, I cite.) : 

An important. point, is to place the movable joinery.; In’ ans 
cient; monuments in the epoch of very thick walls,: the doors 
and shutters could generally open: against: their: jambs,: and 
boxes were arranged to receive them.) For internal doors,: thi 
arrangement could not; be improved; at: Versailles when 4 door 
was: opened between two rooms,: its leaves were swuns against, 
the thickness of tha wall and fitted in a box,: decorating — 
the splays on each side in harmony with the soffit; of the 


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same: openins,: also generally of joinery.; These monumental 
arransenents are: rarely possible in our modern structures,: 
and the: doors and windows sgemerally open into the: rooms.) For 
the: doors,: the. choice of direction of the opening is very in 
portant;. it: is necessary to prevent. their striking against, 
each other,: or that they interfere with the furnibure,: etos; 
Phis study should and must, be: made in the: plan,: but; no. rule 
is possible in this matter.) For blinds or external shutbers,: 
their opening against, the wall is only possible if: the walls 
are: plane, as frequently seen in the architecture: of the tin 
of Louis XVI, Ifthe blinds open against. the architraves or 
other: architectural motives,: nonsense results,: and it: is bes 
ter: to have recourse: to blinds in folds,: that shut; against, © 
the side of the: window.) But; a little greater width of the o- 
pening: must, be arranged: (Pis,; 538).; 7 

Paneling: forms a magnificent coverings of the walls,: but. 
calls for no particular: theory,: for this always: ‘frames: — 
and panels.} There are very beautiful examples and in great; 
number.; Those of Mansion Soubise (Fis.; 539) are: among’ the: 
number of the most. remarkable,} | 

Finally,: the esilings have afforded opportunity for very — 
beautiful work in joinery,: or carpentry and: joinery combined 
with an arrangement, once decided,: there: aust. be placed a sen 
eral framework ready to receive the panels: in their different 
planes, Here again I. cannot, indivate rules,: but; have already 
shown you a beautiful example of the great. hall of the Palace 
of Justice at. Rouen (Fig,: 420).: In metal work, I: should: en= 
ter into too many details.; Besides,: simple or: rich,: metal wo 
has: no effect. on the composition.; This is a question of- prz 
tice and experience.; But, the metal work assumes: a monumental 
imporbance: in grilles,: fixed: or: opening.} The great, fixed 
grilles are constructed with piers of: stone,: the metal part 
being’ in a sort; merely fillings more or less rish between 
the piers, or the piers themselves may be of: netal.j° Im | 
that. case,: however: strons’ they are,: they do not, prevent; the: 
deflection of the grille,: unless they form actual buttresses 
at, certain distances.) In siiple and: yet. very monumental tree 
ment,: I. will cite: the srille of Val~de-Grace,: or: the similar 
one of the: National Library on Rue: Vivienne.) Note in pass 
ing, that. when a grille is: an external enclosure,: ib. should. 


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512 
be so. designed as to not. facilitate: climbins over: it.) Then 
should be avoided intermediate cross bars and ornaments furs 
nishins. a foothold,: i 

Opening grilles are composed in similar fashion, frequent] 
with a solid base,.: But. here especially are required strong 
piers.) The leaf of a Sate is heavy,: and when opened at, risht 
angles, it tends to overthrow the pier,: which should then be 
furnished with flying buttresses or: great. consoles staying i 
inside.) Grilles have often been very richly treated.: It, sulm 
fices to cite those easily. seen,: on Palace of justibe,: at: 
the entrance: of the: court. of honor of Versailles; also the: 
internal grilles of the Cathedral of Amisns,: or. the celebrat, 
ed grilles of Nancy (Fis.; 540).; q 

The railings of stairs and balconies have given places for 
very prebty compositions,: but: I. should exceed my limits if I 
enlarge on such a varied subject,; 

With metal. work is connected the wrought; and east. iron ara. 
chitecture of halls and: porticos.; It. permits: wider: propert~ 
ions,: smaller points of support, than masonry does.; It; is the 
suitable for light; porticos,: like the passages for: utility 7 
asylums: and hospitals,: sehools,: ete.,: on condition that. its 
proportions are frankly those required by metal.) Never make 
in metal an imitation of stone architectures; The. lintels are 
here beams or shapes adapted to wide spans,: and their: ration- 
al form is straight. and not, arched.) Yet, the arch would be: 
proper if the hall were to be covered by curved vaults.g Thus 
is understood the fine reading hall of the National Library 
(Fig.; 541),: one of the most, beautiful works of: modern archi: 
tecture.) Likewise have: been erected very interesting halls — 
with the design of ceilings having visible iron beams; By — 
the loyally expressed: construction and the just. proportions, 
these entireties may acquire their: value.; One of the most. : 
beautiful examples,: that: I. ean cite,: is: the great. hall with 
several galleries in the Museum of Natural History.; 

Bub, it must, be stated that; these desitns ars: scarcely in 
the reach of beginners.) We have no. lons traditions here,: ani 
the creations are only permitted to men,« who have mastered 
their talent by lon’ traditional studies,: which aust, primari 
ly be your programme.; For: all these: subjects requiring iron 
architecbure,: are: necessary two. things; to. know the construe 


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* 1 Rao ae nd ee aanSeleAeTe 3 


315 
tion,: and a taste sufficiently formed to be able to create | 
where no old errors: exists; The programme is beautiful and se 
ductive;. when you, enter on it. in your turn,: know how to as» 
similate it. completely,: and bring to the study of metal the 
same spirit, of truth,: that: you, should be convineed,: is al» 
ways the guide of the true: architect; 

I. shall not treat. of plumbing,: heatins,: ete. excepting la- 
ter in indicating the foresight; imposed upon the architect, it 
his compositions.. To enter into details would be to make a 
cyclopedia of construction; each of these subjects merits a 
special work,: that. you will study when necessary.; Neither is 
anything to be said: of lighting at; nisht,: -- always excepting 
the needs of composition =~ of painting,: stucco,: ebe.: This 
is no longer the composition of architecture but its: execu- 
tion,: and I do not wish to exceed my limits,: already suffici: 
ently vast.} I. cannot: pratend that; this modest. work may. take 
the place of an entire library of architecture.; 

Thus: I. have reached: the end,: or nearly all of what, I. have 
Called the Elements of: Architecture.) Certainly,: I. have exh 
austed no. subject, and must, have passed too. rapidly over all 
It; is the Theory of Architecture,: that, is truly infinite;. no. 
thing shows: better than this course the enormous mass of 
knowledge. necessary, to the archibtect.; In one coursa ean only 
be. stated principles,: not giving you recipes; my ambitibn 
is to make you arbists,: who think and meditate, The details | 
of the course may escape from your memories; it matters 1its 
for you will recover then,: if you indeed possess: these suidil 
oprinciples,: that are the essence of all beautiful things,. of 
all that. I have: defined as: classical,: of all that: your dem 
signs should be,} 

Then the first. part. of this course i's terminated,: doubtles: 
the drbest; portion; permit. me to say,: that. I have: not: been 
able: to. prepare myself in advance,: unless: by the long prepa- 
ration of forty years of studies,: and that I: have almost had 
bo. improvise before you, not only the words,: but; the method 
and the connection of the subjects,’ | 

At this sta8e,: a professor should ask himself,: the: only on 
that, profits in instruction:~~ "Have I. been useful?” Very | 
Sincerely,: I. hope,; 

In our instruction are two parts,: the pure. doctrine,: in 


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wedb etd Yo stijaiasizo obs af) geagnoo |” | 
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Jeteban yluo q Yisey ee: svad Ls mara eb Rega te 


Ae hae” os ag rey 


314 

trinsic and eternal truth,and also the truth of the present; 
hour.; The lons experience of your: studies: permits one to 
know what. to emphasize,: and on the other: hand,: what. does not. 
need to be taught, to you;. thus: this: course should not. be tom 
day what. it. will be in ten or twenty years,: or: what. it. would: 
have been ten or twenty yeags since.; It. must; correspond to. 
the general state of your: studies,: and especially to. your. 
tendenciss,: 

Hell,: if: in certain respects ~~ skill,: ingenuity and resear 
«» the School is: in constant. progress,: on the other: hand the 
prepossession of the brilliant, and sometimes of the eccentric 
early turns your minds away from the primitive: verities,: you 
Will lose sight; of the prihnciples,: the functions and aim of 
architecture, the School becomins: more brilliant; and fanciful 
than serious,: and it, is a disappointment. for you,: when a pro- 
gramme: invites you, to treat, one of those aagnitihavawabyiet 
where everything must. be considered and meditated.; What. | 
you, need then are stron’ and severe: studies, austers: instruc~ 
tion,.a recall to the principles.; The idea that. you your- 
selves make your art: is not sufficiently elevated,: but. it is 
necessary to show you,: that, its: nobility is nob; composed of: 
caprice and. ephemeral fashion,: that its laws: exist; and are 
profoundly logical,: that. its: most. beautiful works wibness an 
demonstrate them,; 

Are nob your thoughts: more elevated after these primary lec: 
tures? If so,: my purpose is attained.; 1t. is not: details 
that, 1 assume to teach you;. details are forsotten,: and are a 
So recovered, and besides,: theoretical instruction never re- 
places the experience and knowledge acquired by practice: in 
designinl have no recipes for abraptly making a novice skils— 
ful.; But, certain skilled persons lack the guiding principle, « 
the directing light,: and such lose themselves: at; random; nei- 
ther the lighthouse nor the compass make a novice a skilful 
seaman; but what; would the most, skilful mariner be without; th 
direction? Your lighthouse is the light, from masterpieces; yo 
compass is the orientation of the great; minds,: that. are salv 
ted by the name of masters, And their: instruction,: you. shoul 
understand,: that: I: strive to transmit, to you ih its magnif- 
icent unity.) Hither: I have made myself poorly understood,: or. 
you have already comprehended,: that. all the masterpieces: fur 


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f yostds ence at i Vlesye tot eA. 
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3 : 


nish the same advice and the same lessons,: in spite of all 
differences: of time,: climate,: materials,: methods,: and of 
civilization otself,; 

As for myself,: in some thirty lectures I have spokea to! you 
of the elements of your: art, to the best, of my ability;, I 
know that you will not retain all that, I have said.; What 
does it matter?’ I shall be happy and proud,: if repassins 
mentally over these: thirty leetures,: and seeking to summarize 
them for: yourselves,: you find in condensins,: that, the sub-. 
stance, that, the single word,: or rather the sole desire: | 
shall be for Truthl,; 7 


4 Ae 


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316 
TABLE OF CONTENTS, ; VOL. Bee 
PREF ACE TO. THE PHIRD EDITION.» mmm me Raden 2 
Notes on Life and Works of Julien Guadet.; 


PREFACE 10. THE FIRST EDITEONs = = em oie oo 8 
BOOK i1.; "PREPARATORY. STUDIES. «5 «004-13 se 


CHAPTER I.. PRELIMINARY TNSTRUGTEON pam te xis f 
Necessity of preliminary studies.; -- General instruction.; -- 
Scientific studies;. mathematics; descriptive sgeometry.; = 
Applications to architecture,.; «— Tracing,: shadows.; «= Ideas 
of perspective.; -- Drawing and modeling: 


CHAPTWR I1,; DRAWING INSRRUMENTS AND THEIR USH m m = =22 
Working. instruaents.: ~» Practical susdsestions,; =— Drawihs: 
paper.) «- Use of board,: Tesquare,: triangles,: dividers, ete.} 
w« Lines.j} = Chinese ink.; =~ Practice of washes,: 


| CHAPTER IIT, - ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING m mm mim mm me me me 28 
Geometrical drawing.; -- Its requirements.--= Scales.) «= iq 
Plan.: == Section.; = Elevation.;] «— Need of several projees' 5 
tions for a complete represantation.;, -~ Axes, -— Drawing 
by axes}; examples.) -— Verticals and projections.: «= Limit- 
ing lines of contours.; =~ Oblique projections.; «— Develop- 
ments.? 3 

Sketches.) -~ Method to follow.; -- dk euehed: from memory.: 
-~ Selection of sketches.; 


CHAPTER IV¥V.; MODELING IN GENERAL AND WASHES. = — = - =58 
Modeling in relief.; -- Shadows at. 45°: ~~ Shadow and light»; _ 
~- Yalues.j -— Cast; shadows,: shades and reflectibns,; -= 
Modeling of parts in the light; shadows,: «= Examplese; == 
Rendering distances,.: 


GHAPTER' V.: COPIED DRAWINGS,;-.. . = 4 = - ~ -)= 
Drawing in general.: Form and. proportions,: == Setting.:—-_ . 
Choice of models.; -- Conclusions: fron the precedins.; 


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BOOK II}; GENERAL.(PRINCIPLES, pLa5—~ — = — = = = =Page 


CHAPTER I, PROGRAMME OF THE COURSE ON THEORY. OF 
| ARCHIPRECTORE,- - =m = 2 = = = = 
General statement,.; ~~ Inaugural lecture of the Course 
on Theory of Architecture at School of Fine Arts.=— 
General prosramme.; 


CHAPTER II,; DIRECTING PRINCIPLES = =m m=mmmmmum 6 

Freedom from numerical formulas.; -- The: beautiful in 
architecture and its identity with truth.; -- Method of 
composition in architecture, from general to details,; 
~= The programme.) -= Location,: ground,: surroundings,: eli» 
Mate.. -- Truth in construction expressed by architect. 
ure.) =~ Artistic falsehoods.) =~ Material stability and 
the appearance of stability.- 


CHAPTER III.. GRAND RULES. OF COMPOST PION ne pu me me me we 7 

Useful areas and communications. «=~ Heonomy in compo- 
sition.; -- Lighting and aeration.: «~~ Basy removal of: wa= 
ter.) =» Determination of importance of the parts of the 
programme in view of the arrangement.) -- Sacrifices.) «= 
Useful arrangements and beautiful arransenents.: == Symme- 
try.j-- What, is to be understood by a beautiful plans: = 
The picturesque.: -~ Variety.: = Character.; -— Character a 
Condition of diversity.) -— Tradition.; -— Effect: of social 
conditions on the architecture of each epoch.) 


GHAPTGR IV.) GENERAL. PROPORTIONS. === mom a in m/s ee 

Definition of proportion.; ~~ Logical and traditional 
proportions.} ~~ Architect. is: master and responsible for 
proportions. == Proportion in compositibn; examples.+= 
Difficulty in the study of parts implying false: propor- 
bions.; -« Reciprocal proportions of interiors and exter= 
iors, of courts and halls.; «= Proportions of the sane obm 
ject, according to nearness,: surroundings or distance,; =» 
Examples of identical compositions wand gmoney: by propor 
tions, 


CHAPTER V,) SPECIFIC. PROPORTIONS,- 
Search for causes that. must. vary proportions;: == Applica- 


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318 
tion to orders: taken as examples.; =» Effective dimeni= 
Sions;: superpositions; number: of: points of support; 
artistic: character,; -- Study of proportions in interiors, 
~~ Coupled colonnades,: =— Orders above a basement, story.; 
“/Propoestions in doorways and windows derived from their. 
effective use.; «= Monumental doorways,: ordinary and ser- 
Vice doorways.) «= Application to proportions of windows,: 
-~ Connection of these proportions with heights of stories,: 

Proportions of arches,); =~ Function of the arch,; «=~ Great. 
arches,; «— Monumental proportions in arches.; =» Portals of: 
churches.; =» Proportions of arched windows,: 

Proportions between the different; elements of an edifice, 
particularly of arches: and lintels,; = Exceptions,j =— In 
finite varisety.; 

Conclusion that, truth is the rule: of proportion;; 

CHAPTER VI.: PROPORTIONS. IN HALLS. = mm mm = = Page 99 

Maretial and natural needs,: «- Proportion and charm 
acter; churches,.: =~ Proportions necessary for certain 
halls.: =- Halls risins from the ground.) =~ Variation 
of proportions accordins to effective dimensions; hy 
Sienic requirenents,: introduction of external 1isht,; 
~-Proportions controlled by the nature: of the structure,; 
~~ Proportions of halls,: vaulted or with ceilings,: ete; 


CHAPTER VII.: COROLLARIES OF STUDY. OF PROPORTIONS ~ ~1069 
Study of plans,: sections and elevations is merely a sin» 
Sle study.) -— Their reciprocal dependence,.: =» True method »s 

of study.,; 
Study of proportions requires a delicate sense only erem 
ated by the study of design.) == Identity of desid’n and 
study of proportions,; == Necessity of drawins and sketches,; _ 
Criticism of errors to be condemned.: «= Abuse of enormim 
ty,: and trues grandeur: in architecture,.; -«— Negligence. in 
drawing.,; 


CHAPTER VIII... ART AND SCIENCE OF CONSTRUCTION. = = 108 
Structures are the object of architecture;. construction 
is the means.: -— Construction is an art. and a science,; ~— 
Insufficiency of art. alone and of science alone; == Artis- 
tie Study of constructability; scientific study of methods 
for: control of stability.; 


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319 
Actually the art and science of architecture,: 


BOOK III.: ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE ~ . . ~ « = =Page. 1114 
WALLS AND: ISOLATED OPENINGS,: 


CHAPTER I, WALLS. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES. « Se a ee eo | 
Importance and variety of the study of walls,.: «- Igé- 
lated walls.; -— Batterins construction, -« Plinths,: re» 
cesses,: footings.; «~ Bond and stability. -«- Masonry.: «= 
Antique masonry with stones: set, dry.; «» Covering of the 
wall; cornices and their: reason for existence,; 


CHAPTER II. WALLS CONTINUED;. CONNECTED WALLS - = = = 118 
Connected: walls.: ~~ Various cases of intersectian of | 
walls.) -— Danger: of disjointing .-« Prank treatment, 
Simplicity.; -- Compound walls of different, materials.) == 
Equal settlements.) ~~ Horizontal and vertical combina- 
tions.j ~— System of construction of Roman walls,: -— Vert 
ical lines of quoins,.: 


' CHAPTER Til.) WALLS CONTINUED;. THICKNESS OF WALLS = - —~12 
Thickness of walls determined by the requirements of | 
the construction and of climate;. obtaining an effect or 
a desired appearance;. results of an architectural decora- 
tion.) -- Effects of the construction upon walls.; «= Case. 
of equilibrium.; ~~ External and internal walls.;-— Walls 
with fireplaces.; =~ Stability of isolated walls.; =~ But. 
tresses.) ~~ Appearance of walls.: -~- Monumental power of 
great thickness., -—- Thickness resulting from suecessive 
offsets,; -— Overhansgs,: 


CHAPTER IV.: WALLS. CONTINUED;. CHARACTER AND DECORATION . 
} OF WALLS: at ai aiei ae ee Om eee = = 128 
Character: of walls chiefly exists in their construetion;; 
~« The antique wall.; ~— Nude art ih archibecture.; «~ Char» 
acter of materials.) «- Plinths and footings.:=- Sunk joints 
and bosses.) «= Angle and intermediate quoins,; ~~ Belts,: bands 
and cornices,} 


CHAPTER V.; OPENINGS IN WALLS: THEIR CONSRRUCTION ~ - 135 
Rectansular openings,: jambs and lintels.j -- Very ancient, 


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sxeaplese: Wrath Limited by +t yB@Rent of.,: on. 

examples.: =~ Width limited by the lintel.: == Primi- -?.:> 
tive expedients: for: enlarging them,i ~~ Inclination 

of jambs,: corbellings.: «== The arch.: ~» Different. 

forms of arches,: = Semicircular,: seSmental,: pointed 
arches.) ~~ Imposts,: voussoirs,keystones,: intrados and 
exbrados.; -— Jointing of arches,: -- Segiental arches.: 

~~ Jointed platbands.; =~ Relieving arches. 


CHAPTER VI.; APPLICATION TO BOORS;. WINDOWS;: ETC,» Rage 1 
Isolated openings: (doors and windows).j -« Internal 
and external doorways.;—= With one: or two leaves, «= 
Arched: doorways,.; -- Imposts and interhal arched: soffits..: 
~~ Rectangular: windows,: antique construction.) «= Sills 
and mullions,; «— Balustrades and balconies,; ~~ Great; 
openings and large slass.}; 


CHAPTER VITI,; . DECORATION OF DOORS. AND WINDOWS. — me ae 
Antique origin.; -- Jambs and lintels,: architraves 
and ears,: «= Caps.; == Antigue doors of- Cefalu., 
Caps with consoles,: ~~» Doorways with pediment: caps, : 
enclosed by columns or: pilasters.,; 

Decoration and character of arches,: «= Antique ar 
ches of Falerii’ and Perugia.; «— Arches richly decora= 
ted.j «= Principles te follow,: =. Arches: in Roman and Oy 24 
Byzantine architecture,; ~- Romanesque arches.) == Goth 
ic archess: 

Comparison of tendencies of antique and mediaeval ar» 
ehitecture,: 

Decoration of arched wéndows,: 


BOOK IV. ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE CONTINUED ~-— = = 161 
GROUPED OPENINGS. OR PORTICOS.. THE ORDERS.; | 
CHAPTER I,: PORTICOS. AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION ~ lee Oe 
Piers and their: various: forms,: = Porticos and arches; ves 
resistance of ansgles,: =~ Porticos abutted by buildings, : 
onfacades or in courts.) =— Porticos on circular plan. 
~- Superpositions,; 
Foresight: required: in the study of: the plan: | 


_ GHAPTER II.) PHE ANTCQUE ORDERS — — — 4-2 2 — = = 1668 
Column,: capital,: architrave; reconstituted wall.: == . 


aie CARESS gene og 
OF 


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| 52; | 
--Pobtico of Caryatids at. Athens,; -— Entablatures: 
with friezes,; -~ Function of each part.) =» Compo- 
Sition common to the different: orders,; 


GHAP TER LLE{):DORIS) ORDER : a cw cance heen Page: 171 
Grecian Doric order,. its character.; -— Frieze is 

without function,; ~~ Imitation of wooden archi 

becture.} = Column,j ~~ Capital.) -- Architrave,; «« 

Frieze; trislyphs and metopes,. == Hypothesis of 
origin of Dorie frieze and: cornice; -- Ssuecess= 

ive: constructions of the entablature,: -— Transi=: 

tion from wood to stone,: 


CHAPTER IV, DORIGOPBMPLES AND. DORIC ARGHETSCEURE-— 177 
Additional demonstration of the imitation of wood.; 
~~ Parthenon.) «= Exclusion of wood.; == Hypethral tem- 
ples.} «= Truss: unknown.; =» Phe. Doric at. Romes} m= Study 
of the Doric; the triglyph,; == Angle column,: «— Inclin« 
ations and eurvew.: 


CHAPTER (ViiPHE TONIG) ORDER. - a = - = 9/2 4 
Origin.; -— Simple Ionic,; -— Decorated Tonic,.; == 
Base,: shaft,: capital,: + Volute ab andle.: == Entabe 
lature,;== Coilingsnof porticasent a1 


CHAPTER VI.) THE CORINTHIAN ORDER ~~ — . « = = = = 188 
Its character.: =- Capital.; -— Varied examples,: —— 
Entablature.; -— Modillions.; =~ Monumental Corinthian,: 
~~ Caprice and elegance,: =~ Shafts,. their design.) -= 
Varieties; so-called Gomposite. order,: ! 


CHAPTER VIL, THE TUSCAN ORDER: 240 Un i 
Character,, -- Stone columns,: wooden entablatures,: : 
~~ Researches of M,; LESUER,;-— Delicacy and: Lisht» 
ness resulting from this mode of construction,: ~- 
Projecting roofs,; «= Modern Puscan.; «= Erroneous 
practices.) «= Applications,: 


CHAPTER VIIT,; ; APPLICATIONS OF THE ORDERS mm mm om 195, 
Classical eubsruediaas of the orders,: = Comparisons,: 
~« Tables of actual dimensions,; «- Tables of propon™ 


~ 


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522 
tional dimensions.: == Examination of some: monuments,; 


CHAPTER IX. ARCHED PORTICOS. mom ~Page: 205 
Porticos: with arches: on pisrs.; =~ On isolated col. 
umns,: coupled in width or depth.; ~~ Mediaeval porti- 
COSe} ~~ Cloisters.: -— Porticos enclosed. by columns 
or pilasters.) ~- Importance of the: study of porticos,; 


BOOK V.: BLEMENTS OF ARCHIT@CTURE CONTINUED « « - - 214 
ROOFS,; == FLOORS,; == VAULTS.) —— STAIRWAYS.) —— VAq 
RIOUS BLEMENTS,: 


CHAPTER I,; ROOFS;. THEIR COMPOSITION ~.~..... 9244 
Plane roofs.; =~ Shed roofs.; -- Gable roofs.) ~— Gam- 
blese: == Hip roofs, -— Intersections of roofs.) mm 
Hips,: valleys,: ridges.; = Projections and penetrations of <5 
of roofs.; «= Unequal slopes,: intersections.: «— Curved 
roofs.; «— Broken roofs,: 


CHAPTER II,; ROOFS; CONSTRUCTION « = - = =m -_-_--= 240 
Inclined plane.: -— Battens or laths,.: «m= Simple shed 
roofs.; -~ Trusses, -~ Thrusts and ties.; == Polygonal 
roofs.; -~ Triangular. and mansard: trusses with raised: 
tiebeams,) «= Distances: between trusses,: 


CHAPTER TIT, ;/ROOR (COVERINGS «meen im sen sm on cin nt 
Flow of water.; Continuous and local gutters.; ~~ Roof: 
coverings with antefixas or sutters,; = Crown moulding 
and Sroove.? == Garsoyles,: leaders.; == Monumental roof: 
coverings,; =~ Inclinations eequired.: ~—- Great inclina- 
tions,: terraces,: mansards and decks.) «— Habitable atties,; 


CHAPTER IV,: DOMES AND SPIRES. mn me a mm me we me DI 
Coverings a circular plan.) ~~ Cones and polygonal pyr 
amids.;—— Antique: domes.; «= Pantheon, (S.' Sophia.; == §,; 
Peters; -— Constmuction and’ outline. -— Spires. -- Dee= 
orative character of: modern roofs,: 


Cin? BR Vi; ACCESSORTES OF ROOFS-2 2°! 2-22". oh 
Valleys.: es Gubtbers,.: == Arrangements to be avoided.}; «- 


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Location of the gutter.; «— Balustrades.; -~ Conditions: 
of establishing sutters,; ~~ Leaders,; == Access to 
roofs, «— Walks.; -— Access to attics.) «- Dormers.) == 
Chimney caps,; =- Pediments and: gables,: 


CHAPTER. VI,; FLOORS. AND: CEILINGS i Page 245. 
Composition of floors,: =— Wooden floors,; « Prom 3 
jecting beams.} -~ False projections.) «= Spanse} == 
Internal. cornices,;~= Various arrangements of- 
floors.: «Visible construction.; -~ Ornamental ceile 
inss,.; -- Transition from walls to ceilin&s,; «— Vise 
ible: framework,: 


CHAPTER VII.; VAULTS IN GENERAL. mm mm mm mm | O54 

Equilibrium of vaults.) =- Their forces,: Piers, « i 
their strensth.j «= Plans of vaulted: edifices,; =m 
Italian plans of vaulted edifices with iron tierods,; 
-~ Dangers of vaults.) «— Methods of construction; 
stereonetric veults ih cut stone;- vaults: of small 
materials; mediaeval vaults on independent arches,: 
~~ Thrusts and resistances.; -~ Structure in repose 
and in movement.: -= Consideration of height, of elevation 
of stories,: eta,: 


CHAPT@GR VIII.; VAULTS IN GENERAL. CONTINUED ~ =. = - 264 
Direction of resistaness;: points: of support.: «— 
Vaults with thrust: uniformly distributed,: -— Vaults 
with concentrated thrusts, «= Lightness of vaults.) = 
Roman vaults.: = Materials.) -- Coffers,; -- Roman 
vaults of cut stone; Nimes,« Arles,: Syria.: ~~ Coffers 
in stone vaults,; «= Projections on vaults.: =~ Rela= 
tions of construction and decoration.) == Lidhtins of: 
vaults.) «= Vaults independent. of walls.: =~ Construcm 
tion of vaults should be varied.; 


CHAPTER IX,. DECORATEON OF VAULTS =._ ~— —~ --= = = 1 
Respect. for the form of the vault.; =~ Panels.: «= | 
Painting. -— Decorative paintins,: -- Freseo,: == Renaiss= 
ance paintings.; =- Modern paintings,; 


CHAPTER X,. THR DIFFERENT SPECIES OF VAULTS ~ . = ~ 276 


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Geometry of vaults.) —~ Their generation.; «~ Tunnel 
vaults.) -— Transverse arches,; =~ Cloister vault, == 
Plan square,: rectangular or polygonal.) == Spherical vault. ~ 
~~ Lantern.; =~ Cross: vault.; «= Piers.: =~ Lighting.) «= | 
Halls of Baths.j == Penetrations.) =» Cross vaults and 
raised: penetrations.: «— Cross conizal Vault.; -- Torus 
or semitorus vault.: a Spherical vault, on pendentives,; 
~~ Interruptions, (drums and domes.; =~ Vaults on ribs 
(mediseval). +) w= Pointed cross vaults,; 


t 


CHAPTER KI, - STAIRWAYS mm me ~Page: 297 
Straight. and curved. Stairs.: «= Their elements.}= 
Stairs between walls.; =. Height, and width of StSDS.) -- 
External flights of steps.: = Landings.) == Lighting.; 
of staieways.: «=~ Stairs of Stone.; =— Hood.: Mixed.: 
~~ Landings and overhangs.) == dent o: ranpse: 


CHAPTER XII.) SECONDARY ELEMENTS. OF ARCHITECTURE -=— 306. 
Half timber work,: == Half iron work,; == Marble 
work. == Effect. produced by color,: blocks and: fac 
ings,: pavements.; «- Joinery.; «— Franes and panels,;. 
~~ Doors,: windows,: wainscot,; == Ceilings in join- 
eryej «= Locksmith's work.; -= Fixed and opening 
Srilles,; -— Metallic architecture,; 


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